Class _B !Tf 

Rook 3 



HANDBOOKS OF PRACTICAL GARDENING 
EDITED BY HARRY ROBERTS 



THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



THE BOOK OF 
MARKET GARDENING 



BY 

R. LEWIS CASTLE 
it 

FORMERLY MANAGER, NEVLLL COURT GARDENS AND NURSERIES 
RIDUMONT FRUIT FARM, AND HAMPTON PARK FARM 
AUTHOR OF COMMERCIAL FRUIT GROWING " 
(PRIZE ESSAY, ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY, AND DR HOGG's SILVER MEDAL) 
AND "GRADING AND PACKING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES" 

(GOLD MEDAL essay, fruiterers' company) 



9 



LONDON: JOHN LANE, THE BODLEY HEAD 
NEW YORK: JOHN LANE COMPANY. MCMVI 




Turnbull 6° Spears, Printers, Editiburgh 



PREFACE 



Lord Onslow's Committee, appointed in 1903 to investi- 
gate subjects connected with commercial fruit culture, 
recommended that a sub-department of the Board of 
Agriculture be established to deal with horticulture and 
pomology. If substantial official recognition be accorded 
to that suggestion, important benefits may accrue to 
market gardening as a form of intensive cultivation 
which greatly concerns landowners, tenants, and the 
public. Parliamentary aid is urgently needed in the 
promotion of many reforms, and with such assistance 
on judicious lines considerable and profitable advance 
might be made. 

In the following pages an attempt has been made to 
indicate the directions in which cultivators can help 
their own progress with advantage, and to show the 
methods adopted by many growers who have made 
commercial gardening a highly successful business. 
The author's only object has been to set out in plain 
language the results of thirty years' practical experience 
and close study in the United Kingdom and on the 
Continent. 

Cultural details of all the principal crops are fully 
dealt with in other manuals of this series, • 

R. L. C. 



vii 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Preface .... . . vii 

Introduction ....... i 

The Selection of Land — 

Value ....... 4 

Land Tenure ...... 7 

Compensation ...... 7 

Situation and Accessibility .... 9 

Special Districts, Climatic Characters . . .10 

Soil, Aspect, Altitude . . . . .13 

Labour Questions and Difficulties — 

Permanent and Temporary Workers . . .19 

Horse Labour ...... 25 

Steam Power ...... 26 

Crops, Methods, and Management — 

Specialisation ...... 27 

Vegetables . . . . . .28 

Hardy Fruits ...... 30 

Plants and Flowers . . . . .31 

Arrangement of Crops . . . . .32 

Economy in Production . . . . .34 

Fertilisers, The Use of . . . 36 

Insects and Diseases . . . . 36 

Cultivation under Glass . . . 37 

A Summary of Cultural Essentials . . .43 

Important Details in Commercial Gardening — 

Selection of Kinds and Varieties . . . .47 

Variety Trials ...... 49 

Earliness ....... 51 

Productiveness . . . . . .52 

Constitution and Duration . . . 53 

Appearance and Quality ..... 54 

ix 



X 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Preparing Produce for Sale — 

Gathering and Collecting Crops . . . • 59 

Grading for Profit — 

Packages and Materials . . . . .74 

Packing Garden Produce . . . . -79 

Packing Materials . . . . , 93 

Methods of Packing — 

Packing Fruits , . . . , .101 

Bunching Vegetables . . . . .111 

Packing Cut Flowers . . . . .117 

Packing Plants . . . . . .120 

The Distribution of Produce — 

Consignment to Market Salesmen . . .126 

Growers as Salesmen . . . . .128 

Supplying Retailers . . . . .130 

Markets and Auction Sales . . . 133 

Consignment direct to Consumers . . .134 

The Conveyance of Produce — 

By Road . . . . . 139 

Motors and Tractors ..... 142 

By Rail ....... 147 

By Canals , . . . . .154 

By Parcel Post ...... 154 

Subjects Worth Attention — 

Co-operation ...... 156 

Assessment, Taxes, Rates . . . 157 

Compensation and Insurance .... 159 

Fruit Preserving Factories . . . .160 

Farming and Market Gardening .... 161 

Crop Returns, Values, and Profits . . .162 

Vegetables . . . . . .163 

Hardy Fruits . . . . . .164 

Appendix ....... 165 

Index ..... ... 167 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



PAGE 

Watercress for Market .... Frontispiece 

Market Garden Intercropping .... To face 6 
Arrangement of Crops — Diagram i . , .11 

55 jj js 2 • • .17 

„ „ „ 3 • • • • 23 

J? >> 4 .... 29 

» 5 • -35 
Mixing Compost ...... To/ace 40 

Cabbages on a Small Holding . . . ,,50 
Scssex Truck Basket ...... 60 

Swedish Chip Fruit- Basket . . . . 65 

Fruit and Flower Basket . . . . .65 

Parsley for Market . . . . .To face 70 

Apples and Nuts for Market . . . . ,,74 

Patent Folding Wooden Crates . . . .83 

Parcel Post Boxes (Cardboard) . . .86 

Chip Punnets for Fruits . . . .92 

Mushrooms in a Shed . . . . .To face 100 

Square Willow Baby-Baskets ..... 106 

Box for Cucumbers ... . . 108 

Carnations out-of-doors . . To face 1 10 I 

Motor Market Van . . . . . ,,120 

Market Road Tractor . . . . 128 " 

Messrs Lobjoit's Tractors . . . ,, 134 • 

Foden Wagon for Market . . ,. 140 

Agricultural Motor ... ,,146 

Wellington Tractor . . . . . ,.152 

xi 



/ 



, INTRODUCTION 

Market gardening in its widest sense, comprising every 
department of productive commercial horticulture, must 
always rank in populous countries amongst the most 
important industries connected with land cultivation. 
Though mainly concerned in providing a material 
portion of the food of the people, it also contributes 
largely to the health, to the pleasures, and to the 
artistic tastes of all classes. The concentration of 
workers in the cities has increased the necessity for 
abundant fresh fruits and vegetables, and the demand 
has advanced rapidly ; while the self-supplying members 
of the community have been reduced in numbers by the 
depopulation of rural districts, and the totally inadequate 
provision of garden ground to urban residences. With 
increased facilities for the economical distribution of 
produce, there can be no reasonable doubt that for 
many years market gardening will extend over greater 
areas of land ; the domain of the farmer will be more 
and more invaded, and the wider adoption of intensive 
methods of cultivation will gradually bring back to 
usefulness thousands of acres that have almost become 
derelict under out-of-date and exhausted systems. 

The enormous proportions assumed by imported 
fruits, flowers, and vegetables, together with the in- 
creasing number of home growers, have naturally 
created a keen and general competition attended by 
reduced prices, leaving, even under the best systems, 
narrow margins of profit. Such competition, too, 
will probably become still more acute in the future, 
A 1 



2 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



notwithstanding the demands caused by the advance 
of population. The position of the market gardener 
may therefore be briefly summarised as follows : he is 
secure of a great and increasing market for his produce, 
but except for that of the highest quality, always in 
limited demand, prices will rule low ; and to meet this 
his methods must be rigorously revised, wherever there 
is the slightest chance of improving returns by extra 
care, or reducing expenses by better systems. 

The productive power of good land under the best 
cultivation is only fully understood by those who have 
spent a life in its study ; it is one of the greatest 
blessings accorded to well-directed industry. British 
growers can claim in this respect that they are rivalled 
by few and excelled by none, where attention has been 
concentrated upon the best types of market gardening. 
It is not in general cultivation that defects are so 
conspicuous as in the neglect of details, in imperfect 
organisation, and in rough methods of placing their 
produce before the public. Any business that is worthy 
of a man's utmost exertions, both bodily and mentally, 
must pay for starting and conducting in a systematic 
manner. Certainly, in modern market gardening this is 
one of the first essentials, otherwise the expenditure of 
capital and labour will be heavily discounted, and the 
greatest skill in cultivation will not suffice to ensure 
financial success. Organisation and directing power are 
as much a necessity as the physical strength required in 
the work. 

The purpose of the following pages is to review the 
chief stages of a market gardening business ; to point 
out the most notable and prevailing defects, with such 
remedies as long experience in horticulture has found 
to be generally effective, suggesting also methods which 
are worthy of trial, and indicating the lines upon which 
the most successful businesses are conducted. Intended 



INTRODUCTION 



3 



mainly for those who are familiar with cultural 
methods, about to start in the trade or desirous of 
extending their operations, it is also hoped that others 
may derive some assistance from a careful perusal of 
the facts set before the readers. 



THE SELECTION OF LAND 



Value 

The reduced value of agricultural land at the present 
time favours the cultivator who wishes to break fresh 
ground and who is prepared with the means to purchase 
large areas. The official returns of the gross income 
derived from the ownership of land (excluding ground- 
rents and gardens under one acre) for 1 902-3 were the 
lowest in a period of thirty years, amounting to the 
following totals, which are compared with the highest 
totals of the period named. 

Lowest Year, Highest Year, 

1902-3. 1876-77. 

England, and Wales . £36,624,408 £51,811,234 
Scotland . . 5,883,487 7,689,717 

This represents a total decrease for Great Britain of 
nearly seventeen million pounds. 

Many farms and country estates have come under our 
notice for examination and report, where the price asked 
for the freehold has been as low as £8 or ^"io per 
acre, including residence and farm-buildings. This has 
ranged upwards to £$0 P er a cre, the amount depending 
much more upon the situation than the quality of the 
land. Planted with fruit trees or other permanent stock, 
or having glass-houses, the selling prices rise rapidly, 
from ;£loo to over £400 per acre being asked and 
paid. 

The actual price per acre is not the only consideration 



THE SELECTION OF LAND 



which demands the attention of the market gardener. 
In the first place, especially at starting, he is seldom 
prepared with the capital for either buying or working 
farms of several hundred acres. However tempting the 
chance may appear, it is folly to take more land than can 
be satisfactorily cultivated. The outlay upon labour 
must be heavy, and there is the possibility of hard 
seasons to be faced. With a large area in hand to keep 
up to the best conditions, and a small capital available 
for the purpose, the prospect is not encouraging. 

Apart from other considerations, this has led to more 
failures, both in farming and gardening, than lack of skill 
or application. It is responsible for a large proportion 
of the foul, neglected land which is found on many of 
the great estates, and which in some cases the owners 
have turned into game preserves or rabbit warrens as 
the last resource. There is a confirmed reluctance to 
break up large farms into smaller ones, yet the applicants 
for the latter are far more numerous and the rents 
obtainable much larger in proportion. Numbers of 
examples could be quoted in proof of this, but two will 
suffice for our purpose, both of which are on a large 
agricultural estate within fifty miles of London. In one 
case 20 acres were obtained at ^2, ios. per acre, and in 
the other 50 acres were rented at £2 per acre. Both 
were cut out of farms which were rented at ios. to 
15s. per acre, and the small holders did not share in any 
reductions for bad seasons. Each of the small men 
devoted the land to market garden purposes, partly 
fruits and partly vegetables, maintaining a condition that 
was a credit to the district. The whole of the fruit trees 
were planted on a yearly tenancy, so that the land was 
being improved, while much of the other cheaply rented 
land was as steadily decreasing in value. 

How far the formation of smaller holdings in agri- 
cultural districts could be carried out with success depends 



6 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



mainly upon the situation, the soil, and the local demand. 
The question is too large and involved to be entered 
upon here, but it is an absolute fact that on many estates 
such a scheme could be partially adopted with advantage 
to both owners and tenants. In special districts which 
have proved to be fitted for fruit and market gardening 
generally, the rents obtained at the present time vary 
from 30s. up to £50 per acre, for plots ranging from 
10 acres downwards, the last-named extraordinary 
rent being that charged on small town plots of garden 
ground which have been under cultivation for hundreds 
of years. Yet, with a rental of over 6s. per square rod, 
occupiers have proved that, taking a series of years, they 
sold enough produce (fruit chiefly) to pay their rent, 
besides supplying themselves with what was required. 
In one case this was considerable, because the tenant held 
a restaurant in the town. To purchase the tenant-right 
of such land requires an enormous capital, and we 
know small holders who have obtained for well planted 
fruit land from ^50 upwards per acre under the Evesham 
system. For larger areas similarly planted from £100 
to £200 per acre is asked. One plantation in the home 
counties, comprising 50 acres, was recently offered at 
^10,000, or £200 per acre. 

The Channel Islands afford a good illustration of how 
greatly the value of land in special situations is increased 
under horticultural methods. Mr A. Collinette, F.C.S., 
stated before the British Dairy Farmers' Association 
recently that the value of land per acre in Guernsey 
was as follows : — 

Poor Land, £80. 

Good farm land, £ loo to £l$o. 

Land on horticultural estates, £l$o — £3°°- 

Extreme prices lately realised (actual sale values), 

£5°°— £ 6o °- 




MARKET CARDEN INTERCROPPING. 1,400 SCORES OF LETTUCES PER ACRE 
1,000 BUNDLES OF CELERY PER ACRE 



THE SELECTION OF LAND 7 



He estimates that " a fair average value, taking the last 
five years' sales as a guide, is equal to £250 per acre." 
But this would be reduced now to £200. 

Land Tenure 

The majority of beginners in market gardening 
require from 10 to 20 acres, and if the freehold of 
suitable land could be purchased at .£10 to £20 per 
acre there would be plenty of buyers. Even if it could 
be had on leases of twenty-one years with the option of 
purchase, tenants could be readily found who would give 
from 30s. to £4 per acre, according to the quality of the 
land and the position. It is the difficulty of obtaining 
such small blocks which induces some men to take plots 
of land on building leases of 99 years ; but if the erection 
of houses within a specified time and of a stated value 
is required, such holders frequently find themselves 
involved in considerable difficulties. 

It encourages a man to exert himself to the ut- 
most when he is working upon his own land, or with 
some security of tenure over a definite period ; but 
failing the opportunity or the means to purchase free- 
hold land, or to obtain sufficiently long leases, the 
majority are reduced to renting land on yearly tenure, 
the basis upon which most farm land is let on large 
estates. Near towns the rapidly increasing value of 
land for building renders owners unwilling to let it on 
leases for horticultural purposes, so the market grower 
is either compelled to take it on yearly agreement, or go 
farther out from the centres of population. 

Compensation 

Protection is afforded by law, whatever may be the 
terms of tenure, provided the land is let for market 
garden purposes, distinctly stated in writing. Under 



8 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



the Agricultural Holdings Act and the Market Gardeners' 
Compensation Act, compensation can be claimed for 
permanent improvements, like the planting of fruit trees 
and the erection of buildings which come within the 
scope of the business. Much attention has been called 
to the custom prevailing in the Evesham district in 
reference to the compensation for fruit trees, etc., on 
land held on yearly tenure. The Departmental Com- 
mittee of the Board of Agriculture, appointed to consider 
operations relating to fruit culture, strongly recommend 
that some modification of the Evesham custom should 
be made generally applicable by law. In that district, 
if a tenant wishes to quit his holding he secures another 
man who is willing to take it, and to pay the valuation 
of the permanent stock on the ground. His name is 
then submitted to the landlord for approval, but the 
latter may not arbitrarily or without adequate reason 
refuse to accept a tenant thus obtained. If he do refuse 
without sufficient reason, or because he wishes to retain 
the land himself, he becomes liable for the compensa- 
tion, exactly as if he had given the tenant notice to 
quit. When the incoming tenant is duly accepted the 
outgoing tenant gives notice in accordance with the 
terms of his agreement. 

As it stands, this custom is of especial value in 
reference to fruit planted before the Market Gardeners' 
Compensation Act, 1 89 5, came into operation. But though 
it carries weight in the district, it would be of little 
avail elsewhere. The fact that the Act in question is 
not retrospective is rightly considered as extremely 
hard upon men who have been paying increased rent on 
their own improvements, and who yet have no claim for 
compensation when they quit. The Fruit Committee 
named recognised this, and recommended that Section 
4 of the Act should be made retrospective, and it may 
be hoped that this will be carried into effect. 



THE SELECTION OF LAND 



The purchase value of freehold land is reckoned on 
the annual rent; thus a farm or holding let at £l per 
acre would be worth, at eighteen years' purchase, £18 per 
acre freehold ; at twenty-five years' purchase the value 
would be £2 5. Those are the two extremes. For some 
agricultural land eighteen years' purchase has been con- 
sidered a fair basis in recent years, and in few cases has 
it risen above twenty-five years : the majority of sales 
would average from twenty to twenty-two years. Rents 
vary enormously, from ios. or 15s. per acre for neglected 
farm land to £4 or £$ for the most fertile land without 
permanent crops ; planted with fruit trees, the rental 
rises from £5 to £10 per acre, depending upon the 
age and condition of the trees. But where the tenant- 
right custom prevails, the rent often does not exceed 
£2, ios. per acre, though the price paid for incoming is 
equivalent to rent. 

Situation and Accessibility 

The position selected for a market garden will be 
partly determined by the special objects of the grower, 
but in any case it is important to be either near a town 
or within a moderate distance of a station on a good 
railway line. The distance to be covered in the con- 
veyance of produce must always be more or less of a 
disadvantage, whatever means are at command. The 
reduction of such distance to the minimum usually 
brings a corresponding increase in rent, and the gain in 
one direction has to be weighed against the 'loss in 
another. It therefore becomes a question that must be 
settled in every instance in accordance with the grower's 
particular requirements. 

There is, however, a conspicuous cultural advantage 
in going beyond the smoke area of large cities, and 
many growers have thus changed their quarters with 



io THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



substantial gain in many respects. The prevalence of 
south-west winds in Great Britain needs consideration in 
this connection, because as a rule the smoke trouble is 
less serious in the west or south-west quarters of a city, 
or at least the area of danger does not extend so far. It 
is not only in the poisonous substances carried by smoke 
and dense fogs that injury is found, it is also the diminu- 
tion of light which affects vegetation unfavourably. 

The accessibility of a place is of much importance, 
including good roads and a convenient approach. Serious 
defects in these matters will greatly decrease the value 
of land, while probably forcing expenses upon the 
occupier that may cripple his resources severely. We 
know instances where the loss incurred in time wasted, 
with damage to the goods on bad roads or in the 
expense occasioned by repairing and maintaining such 
roads in fitting condition, has nearly doubled the rental 
of the land. Low prices or low rents sometimes tempt 
a man to take a place without duly considering these 
points, and estimating the outlay that will be essential to 
bring it into proper form. 

Special Districts, Climatic Characters 

The question is often asked, Where is the best district 
to start market gardening ? The answer is that if the 
essential conditions can be secured which are here 
enumerated an energetic and skilful cultivator can found 
a business in any English county, or in many parts of 
Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. At the same time the 
special advantages of some localities, and the objects of 
the grower, should be kept distinctly in view. If early 
outdoor produce is desired, the warmer sheltered 
situation and aspects must be chosen, so that the more 
northern and populous manufacturing centres can be 
supplied in advance of their own districts. It is useless 



y X X 

* * * 

Small- VEGETABLE'S 

% * + 



Diagram x. — Mixed Plantations. (See page 32.) 

Standard Apple Trees ( X ), 30 feet by 30 feet, cropped between the 
lines with small fruits or vegetables, or these crops in alternate breadths. 
Standard Plums (0) can be planted at half distances, i.e. 15 feet, or 
Dwarf Apples, Pears, and Plums ((^)) at 10 feet in the rows. 

[Scale, 1 inch = 30 feet. 



i2 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



going into exposed bleak places on cold heavy soils with 
the idea of competing in early crops from the land. 
Favourable situations are not restricted to the extreme 
southern and western counties, though these naturally 
offer many advantages ; good sites occur even far north, 
but knowledge, experience, and judgment are needed in 
their determination. The principal climatic characters 
affecting outdoor gardening that demand attention are 
the rainfall, the sunshine, and the exposure to winds. 
As regards the first, the difference between the extreme 
eastern and western counties of England is very marked : 
the average annual rainfall in some of the latter amounts 
to three times that recorded in the eastern counties. 
Apart from other effects, the annual duration of sunshine 
is reduced where the rainfall is greatest, though, upon 
the cold East Coast, fogs are apt to be prevalent, and, in 
certain districts especially, produce a similar effect, 
particularly in the river valleys. Except in the worst 
coast localities wind influences can usually be counter- 
acted by suitable planting. 

The advantages derived from selecting land in districts 
where market gardening is a well established industry 
are chiefly found in the facts that good land is obtained, 
labour of a suitable character is more readily secured, 
and probably special facilities are available for the 
carriage of produce. Against these must be set the 
higher price or rent of the land, higher rates of wages, 
and a competition which renders local markets, or any 
within convenient reach of the grower, unprofitable 
outlets. There is, however, just as much overcrowding 
of growers in some districts, as there is too great a 
tendency to rush into a few markets. With more 
independent enterprise and courageous energy, growers 
might find plenty of excellent land where they could 
not only make a substantial business for themselves but 
initiate a new industry for the district. Many examples 



THE SELECTION OF LAND 



of this having been accomplished are within our 
knowledge. 

Soil, Aspect, Altitude 

Commercial success in cultivation depends largely upon 
the fertility and physical character of the soil chosen. 
In both respects most soils can be vastly improved by 
adequate and continued attention, but the expense of 
doing this must be reckoned carefully, or the grower may 
find his resources exhausted before he has reaped the 
reward, which will fall to his successor. Excessively 
light, sandy, stony, or rocky land must be avoided on the 
one hand, while heavy, tenacious clays are equally unsuit- 
able on the other. Thin surface soils resting upon deep 
chalk beds are of little value for market-garden pur- 
poses, nor are those which are peaty, marshy, or water- 
logged likely to yield any return in comparison with the 
expense. Shallow soils resting upon a rocky or stony 
"pan" are valueless, unless the latter can be readily broken 
and the tilth deepened. A deep friable loam is the best 
for vegetable culture, but the land that can be rendered 
suitable may range from the alluvial soils of river 
valleys, often abounding in humus, to fairly heavy loams 
especially adapted for fruits. The heavier the soils the 
greater the expense in the labour needed to ensure due 
cultivation ; they are also troublesome, perhaps actually 
unworkable, in wet weather, though they stand dry 
seasons admirably with plenty of surface culture. The 
lighter soils can be worked at much less cost ; the 
operations are not materially checked by weather influences, 
but their crops are apt to suffer severely in times of 
drought, and larger applications of manure are required. 

For men starting in a small way, who are mainly 
dependent upon their own labour, an easily workable 
soil is important, and this applies generally where manuul 
labour only is available. Where horse or steam power 



i 4 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



can be utilised it is not so urgent, though the cost must 
not be omitted from the calculations. To aid in 
economical and convenient working, market-garden land 
should also be reasonably level, though moderate slopes 
are not objectionable. Foul land should be avoided as 
far as possible, unless some substantial consideration is 
allowed in the rent or purchase price. When the soil is 
full of weeds and their seeds, or with those having 
creeping roots, such as Twitch or Bell Bine (Wheat Bine), 
a period of cleansing must be set down in the programme, 
which often means heavy expense and considerable delay 
before the plans can be carried out. In the same way, 
land that is liable to be water-logged through the 
absence of natural or artificial drainage, is not adapted for 
market-garden work, and it is one of the points requiring 
attention in taking farm land, to make sure that if drains 
exist they are operative with suitable outfalls into ditches 
and water-courses. 

A favourable aspect adds greatly to the value of land 
for commercial purposes in any part, but the farther 
north we go the more important it becomes, as it may 
effectually counterbalance the disadvantages of lower 
average temperatures. There are few districts or 
seasons where too much warmth and sunlight are ex- 
perienced in the spring months, when market garden 
crops most need such help ; consequently any aspect 
which commands the fullest exposure to sun with 
shelter from north and east winds is preferable. 

Altitude and elevation may be regarded separately 
for our purpose, the former referring to the height above 
sea-level, and the latter to the height in comparison 
with the surrounding land. For all cultural purposes 
as regards the Southern and Midland counties the 
altitude has less general influence than an elevation of 
fifty to one hundred feet above neighbouring land. This 
is especially applicable to fruits and to early vegetables. 



THE SELECTION OF LAND 15 



In low-lying districts the spring frosts are apt to cause 
much loss, which is to a great extent escaped on the 
higher land. This is also the case in early autumn, 
when many tender plants are cut off or seriously 
damaged much sooner on the lowlands than on higher 
though neighbouring elevations. 

The fact that river valleys are so often the sites of 
extensive market gardening is due chiefly to the fertility 
and workableness of the soil, though it is often partly 
attributable to the vicinity of great cities, as in the 
Metropolitan area. In many other respects they are 
unfavourable, and the heavy losses experienced at times 
are only made up by still more intensive cultivation, or 
by the aid of glass-houses. 

The supply of water is an important item in this 
matter, as not only is that more readily obtained near 
rivers by artificial means than on high ground, but 
there is usually abundance of moisture rising constantly 
from the lower soil layers in hot weather, which exerts 
an extremely beneficial influence far in advance of that 
afforded by artificial supplies on the surface. For 
vegetable crops and for flowers, apart from the danger of 
frosts in spring and autumn, such positions are suitable, 
but they are less so for fruits, though some thousands 
of acres are devoted to them in similar situations. The 
losses in these crops under such circumstances are 
frequent but variable, and local protection, sloping 
ground, aspect, and "air drainage" (i.e. free escape for 
the cold heavy air to lower levels) all exercise some, 
influence in the direction of safety. 

Fences, hedges, or other boundaries with gates must 
have close attention in securing property for market- 
gardening, as if they are seriously defective heavy ex- 
penses may be incurred subsequently. Be careful also 
to ascertain exactly which hedges, etc., belong to the 
property in question. There is not, as a rule, much 



1 6 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



difficulty in determining this when ditches are kept 
open, as they should always be on the side away from 
the owner's land, i.e. the hedges are planted on the 
land, and the ditch constitutes the boundary. Sometimes 
this guide is absent, and considerable difficulty and 
annoyance may be experienced if the facts are not 
determined at the time of purchase. 

This is of the greatest importance where pastures 
adjoin the garden or farm, as it is incumbent upon the 
occupier to keep his hedges in order, not only for the 
protection of his own place, but to prevent the entry 
of cattle or horses from other persons' land. Failing 
this he has a doubtful claim for damage, which in the 
case of a garden or nursery may be of a serious character. 
In the same way the occupier of adjoining land is required 
to maintain his hedges in an effective state where they 
form the boundary of another's property. 

Protection from adverse winds may exist as rising 
ground or as plantations of trees at a convenient distance, 
and in all cases adds to the value of the land for 
immediate use. Otherwise it will be necessary to plant 
hedges, groups, or belts of trees, to provide the shelter 
required. This is of more importance for fruit trees 
and flowering plants than for vegetables, except the 
earliest and most tender. But as wind breaks, compact 
dense hedges of moderate height are useful in most 
gardens, nurseries, or farms, only they must not be too 
near together so that the land is cut up into small plots, 
unless in exposed districts where particular shelter 
is needed for choice plants and flowers. A distinction 
must be made between hedges for boundaries and those 
for protection only. As an outside hedge nothing has 
yet been found to surpass the Common Quick or 
Whitethorn, but it is very slow in growth, and needs so 
much protection in its young state that it usually 
answers a market grower's purpose better to provide 



<0 



Diagram 2. — Mixed Fruit Plantation. (See page 32.) 

Standard Apples ( X ), 30 feet by 30 feet. Standard, half-standard 
or bush Plums, Apples, or Pears (0) in alternate lines. 

[Scale, 1 inch = 30 feet. 



B 



18 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



fences where hedges do not exist, or do not admit of 
being readily restored. As protective hedges many 
trees and shrubs can be employed, either evergreen or 
diciduous. On heavy land we have found nothing 
quicker or cleaner than the Cherry Plum or Myrobalan. 
But profit-yielding hedges have been formed of Plums, 
Damsons, Bullaces, Ornamental Crabs, Apples, Roses, 
and other plants. 

Protective belts or plantations of trees are more 
expensive, and need the most careful consideration, as 
there is not only the time required for them to become 
effective, but the space occupied and overshadowed is 
lost for cultivation. Still when hedges do not suffice, 
some provision of this kind must be made, and the 
points to be observed are to have quick-growing, compact 
trees, which should be further kept in bounds by pruning 
and lopping. Where low trees suffice, especially if the 
situation be damp, Willows may be useful in several 
ways ; if tall trees are needed, Poplars are all quick in 
growth, and will bear any requisite amount of cutting. 
But their roots extend a long distance, and the trees are 
objectionable, as the resort of many injurious insects. 
The Common Plane is quick in growth, though it does 
not form a dense head, but it is of the greatest value 
in town districts. The Common Sycamore is also useful, 
and the Norway Maple is a strong grower, standing 
exposure well. The Wych Elm is fairly quick in 
growth, and succeeds on some of the roughest coast 
lands. 



LABOUR QUESTIONS AND 
DIFFICULTIES 

The manual labour required upon market-garden land may 
be divided into several classes, but the two principal which 
demand consideration come under the heads, (i) Per- 
manent, (2) Temporary. Both present certain difficulties, 
and upon the way they are dealt with a large measure of 
the success attainable in results will depend. As pointed 
out elsewhere in this treatise, many labour difficulties are 
reduced in districts where market gardening is an estab- 
lished industry. Near towns also they are more easily 
overcome ; but in rural districts, where farm land is being 
devoted to intensive cultivation, several matters of serious 
moment cannot be overlooked. The provision of cottages 
is one of the subjects which must be attended to at the 
outset. In many counties the depopulation is not due 
alone to the attractions of towns or the lack of employ- 
ment, it is partly owing to insufficient housing accommoda- 
tion. When an industry is started which offers work to ten 
times the number of hands upon the same area of land, it 
is obvious the matter assumes a serious aspect. For 
permanent workmen cottages must be provided, and thus 
a heavy outlay has to be at once faced if there* be no 
adequate existing erections. Upon freehold land it can 
be regarded as a safe investment, and there would be 
no difficulty in obtaining the requisite capital upon such 
security. Suitable cottages can be erected at a cost of 
£150 to £200, provided the plans are passed by the 
local authorities, and the water-supply is sufficient in 
quantity and quality. In the latter case analysis must 

19 



2o THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



determine the satisfactory character of the water before 
occupation is authorised, and through not making a prior 
inquiry on this point considerable difficulties and expense 
have been caused at times. Lord Carrington has stated 
(see Times, Oct. 12, 1905) that upon his estates in 
Buckinghamshire and Lincolnshire, between the years 1 873 
and 1897, 43 cottages have been erected at an average 
cost of £156, 13s. each, and the rent charged to the 
occupiers is one shilling per week. In reply to inquiries 
upon the subject he further stated that the value of the land 
is reckoned at £2$ per acre ; and allowing a quarter of 
an acre to each cottage ( = £6, 5s.) and the estate agent's 
expenses in preparing plans, etc.,attwoshillingspercottage, 
the total cost is brought to ^163. Obviously the rent 
charged pays no appreciable interest upon the capital sunk, 
but the owner very truly adds, ' i A farm without 
security of labour does not command anything like such 
a high rent as one on which there are cottages for the 
labourers." 

This applies with far greater force to land employed 
for fruit and market garden purposes, where there is more 
urgent need for manual labour ; and as wages are 
higher, rents range from 2s. 6d. to 4s. per week. Upon 
a large holding the fact of having a sufficiency of 
permanent labour will increase the annual value of the 
land by 5s. to ios. per acre, and in this way a sub- 
stantial interest is certainly secured. We know practical 
business men who regard the matter in this light, and who 
consider their outlay as one of the most satisfactory parts 
of their expenditure. 

The amount of permanent labour required must be 
regulated by the character of the cultivation, the crops, 
the nature of the land, and how far the arrangements or 
methods permit the employment of horse labour or steam 
power. Upon an agricultural estate in the Midlands we 
have found the average over some thousands of acres to 



LABOUR QUESTIONS 



be as low as one man and a boy per loo acres. With 
intensive cultivation, in which hand labour was chiefly 
employed, it has risen to one man per acre, and with 
glass houses added the permanent labour is enormously 
increased. 

The rates of wages vary greatly in different districts, 
and local customs must to some extent be followed ; but 
it is a safe and sound policy to give good wages and 
secure the most skilful and reliable men. They should 
also be allowed special encouragement whenever possible 
at busy times, by allotting them a share of piece-work, 
or by paying for overtime. The stoppage of outdoor 
labour by wet or frosty weather introduces a most 
difficult question as regards men in receipt of regular 
weekly wages. The best and fairest system is to keep 
in reserve certain work that can be done under cover, in 
sheds, etc., at such times. When long periods of severe 
weather occur in winter, and wages are stopped, wholly 
or partly, the men are subjected to great hardships, and 
it often takes the largest part of their summer's work to 
clear up the arrears of rent alone. At the same time a 
commercial establishment cannot be run on a system of 
paying wages without a return in labour. Where the 
cultivation of plants or fruits under glass forms a part of 
the business there is less difficulty in finding constant 
work for a permanent staff, and that is one of the 
advantages that accrue from a combination of the various 
departments of market gardening. 

Temporary labour is always required at certain periods 
wherever extensive cultivation of fruits or vegetables is 
undertaken, and in rural districts at a distance from large 
towns, with only small villages to depend upon, this often 
occasions a great difficulty at critical periods. The 
numbers of women, with girls and boys old enough to 
leave school, that are obtainable under such circumstances 
are very limited. In a farming district with four or five 



22 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



villages within a radius of two or three miles and a total 
population of about iooo, we have found it difficult to 
secure fifty temporary workers for gathering small fruits, 
etc., though the rates offered were in advance of those 
prevailing in the neighbourhood. Where the villages 
are still more distantly placed the difficulty is proportion- 
ately greater, and in such cases it is compulsory to 
import labour. If large towns can be reached by road, 
it is usual in some places to engage the hands required 
and bring the people out by vans, etc., returning them in 
the same way, each day, at the week's end or when the 
special work is finished. In the last two cases the 
provision of sleeping accommodation is a serious matter, 
as it rarely happens that villagers can provide lodgings 
for such "visitors," and if they are able to do so they 
are seldom willing. When temporary labour obtained 
in the way indicated (or by train) is required regularly 
every year, some market gardeners and farmers have 
found it advisable or even necessary to build wooden or 
corrugated iron sheds divided into cubicles, or small apart- 
ments, each with a separate door, and such structures 
can be put up in a simple way at a moderate cost. If 
large barns or other buildings exist they can be sometimes 
utilised in the same way, but tents might often be 
substituted with advantage, under suitable arrangements. 
Second-hand army tents are obtainable from some dealers 
at a moderate rate, and with due care and proper storage 
they may last for a considerable time. 

All temporary labour employed on established under- 
takings should be paid by piece-work, or by the hour, 
the former being preferable in the majority of instances, 
and will necessitate a simple but exact method of check- 
ing. For land work it is an advantage to pay by 
measurement, which may be facilitated by having the 
ground set out in plots of a known area and numbered. 
In gathering, both weights and measures of capacity are 



> X y 

X X x 

X / v 

* X * 
X X * 
X * r 

* ? % 
^ yL y 
X > > 

X X y 

X X * 



Diagram 3. — Fruit and Vegetables or Flowers. (See page 32.) 

Standard Apples ( X ) in single lines 30 feet apart in the rows, 30 
yards between the rows. Plums, Apples, or Pears, with Bush fruits 
(as in Diagram 1), in the lines of trees. The intermediate spaces 
cropped with vegetables or flowers. 

[Scale, 1 inch = 30 yards. 



24 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



utilised, and to avoid all trouble of booking it is some- 
times the rule to pay the sum agreed upon to each indivi- 
dual when the basket or box is brought in. Otherwise 
numbered tickets or metal checks are given and payment 
is made daily or weekly as arranged, but daily payment 
or part-payment is commonly required by such workers. 
The actual rates are even more variable than those that 
apply to permanent wages, and in many instances they 
depend upon the amount of the crop, as the possible 
earnings will be regulated by the quantity available. In 
bunching or similar work, fixed rates are adopted, as the 
workers' earnings depend entirely upon their own skill 
and quickness. 

As regards the relative value of men and women in 
temporary work of the kind indicated, there is little doubt 
that while the former are needed for most land work, 
especially on the heavier soils, the latter are the best 
adapted for the lighter forms, particularly gathering and 
bunching. 

It should be added that wages for permanent hands 
range from 2s. 6d. to 4s. per day, according to the skill 
and experience of the men, while for some it may rise 
to 5s. or 5s. 6d. a day. In some extensive market 
gardens also it is the rule to have the smallest possible 
number of permanent hands, who practically act as 
foremen in different departments ; the whole of the 
work is done by temporary labour by piece-work or 
payment by the hour, and printed bills are posted 
up at the entrance to the office or at the gateway, " No 
notice given or required to terminate work in this 
establishment." 

Considerate treatment with judicious firmness and 
fairness is appreciated by the best men of all classes 
with which we have had to deal, and those who are not 
amenable to such management are not worth having. 
It is, however, always advisable to have a few plain 



LABOUR QUESTIONS 25 



rules regulating the hours of work, meal-times, etc., and 
stated times for the payment of wages. Such rules 
should be strictly enforced, especially with regard to the 
times for starting and ceasing work. In a large staff, 
laxity in these matters means considerable loss, and regu- 
larity is mainly a matter of habit. 

Horse Labour 

No more efficient means of cultivating the soil has 
been found than the operations of digging, forking, 
trenching, and hoeing by manual labour. Valuable as 
this is, the expense is so heavy that wherever possible it 
is reduced by the employment of other power, and the 
larger the area of land to be dealt with, the more 
necessary it becomes to utilise cheaper sources of 
labour. With the aid of the best ploughs of various 
forms, and the many excellent cultivators now in the 
market, horse power can be turned to good purpose, 
especially on heavy soils, which need so much strength 
to break them up sufficiently. It is only at particular 
times that the soil is in the right condition for operations 
of the kind named, and it is therefore necessary to 
complete them as quickly as the means at command 
will permit. The satisfactory preparation of any heavy 
soils by horse labour depends entirely upon the 
frequency with which they can be worked before they 
are too wet. For many of the refractory soils (which 
are not, however, those usually selected for market 
garden crops) a period of exposure in a roughly turned- 
up state to the action of frost and weather is also 
essential, and when that can be provided the condition 
is improved in a surprising manner. On light and 
medium soils, simple horse ploughs and cultivators can 
be used to good purpose ; but on the more substantial 
loams, two and three-horse machines are requisite, and 
in some instances we have had to employ four horses to 



26 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



carry the work out in a thorough manner without 
unduly distressing the horses. All the cultivators we 
have tried are fitted with tines, shares, or blades that 
are movable, so that they can be raised or lowered for 
light or deep draught respectively. They can be reduced 
in number if desired, and in some cases the machines 
can be widened or contracted to fit them for working 
in rows of different widths in horse-hoeing. The 
Planet Junior Machines are very useful in this way on 
medium soils. 

Steam Power 

On farms and market gardens of the largest extent, 
and with heavy soils, steam power is often a desirable 
aid in ploughing and cultivating, or in breaking up old 
pasture or arable land that requires to be deepened for 
special planting. When the engines and tackle can be 
conveniently hired and brought on to the land, it is the 
cheapest form of preparing large areas of land, but it 
will not pay on small extents, or when a portion only 
can be done at the one operation. It is usual for the 
hirer to provide and cart the coal for the engines, also 
to keep them supplied with water, and this is a serious 
item, especially when it has to be carted a distance. 
When water is not procurable or only at a serious cost 
in labour, it is useless to think of steam cultivation. 
Otherwise where speedy preparation is important the 
power is both cheap and valuable, but if the soil is 
heavy and has not been efficiently cultivated it must be 
remembered that the work is apt to be done in a rough 
manner, necessitating much after-treatment to reduce it, 
or a prolonged period of exposure to effect the same 
object. Some forms of Agricultural Motors have been 
tried with varying results, but improvements are being 
constantly effected, so that we may look for really 
useful machines in this direction. 



CROPS, METHODS, AND MANAGEMENT 



Specialisation 

In commercial gardening, as in other forms of business, 
the truth of the old homely adage that it is unwise to 
have all your eggs in one basket has been often proved. 
These are days of specialisation, and it is well to have 
some crop to which particular attention is paid, to excel 
if possible in its production, and to gain a propor- 
tionate reputation. But the uncertainties of British 
weather, and the variability of British taste in some 
matters, are apt to lead to unexpected failures, with 
disastrous results if there is nothing else to depend 
upon. The advice given by the savant with regard to 
general knowledge, " learn everything of something, and 
something of everything," is just as applicable to 
gardening for profit, as the wider the range of a man's 
cultural knowledge, the more likely is he to keep up to 
the times and ahead of his rivals. At the same time, it 
is not advisable to attempt too much, or that may lead 
to equally bad results. It has been proved that gigantic 
businesses can be created in the production of a few 
special crops like Grapes, Cucumbers, or Tomatoes 
amongst under-glass fruits ; Roses, Chrysanthemums 
or Daffodils amongst flowers ; Celery, Onions, Asparagus, 
Cabbages, Cauliflowers, Brussels Sprouts, or Potatoes 
amongst vegetables ; and Apples, Pears, Strawberries, 
Raspberries, Currants, or Gooseberries amongst hardy 
fruits and such exceptional crops as Mushrooms both 
outdoors or under cover. 



27 



28 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 

It is sometimes found that a man can make a profitable 
business with one group of plants alone, as with Ferns, 
for instance, or even with one kind of plant, as Lilies of 
the Valley, or any of those already mentioned. Such 
results may be brought about by special experience and 
skill, by the help of local conditions or circumstances, or 
by the grower's perception of an increasing demand 
which it pays to supply. It is unquestionable that a 
material aid to any undertaking is yielded by an easily 
produced speciality, and under exceptionally favourable 
conditions it may be developed into a substantial 
business. Still, the majority of those who engage in 
market-gardening cannot depend upon one crop alone, 
especially when the land held covers an extensive 
acreage, and a combination of crops becomes a necessity. 

Vegetables 

Near populous cities vegetables are always largely 
grown, as the demand is constant for fresh produce, and 
where bulky or heavy crops of that kind can be con- 
veyed by road, it is advantageous to the grower. 
Another point in their favour is that under the best 
systems of cultivation several crops can be raised from 
the same land in one season. Soil which has been 
brought to the highest state of productiveness by 
constant working and heavy manuring is independent of 
any precise system of rotation ; it is only a question of 
time, weather, and good management to have the land 
constantly occupied, or ready for the reception of 
another crop as soon as one is removed. Again, too, 
when fresh land is taken in hand, a course of cultivation 
under vegetables is an excellent preparation for what 
are to constitute the permanent crops. Very large 
returns are also obtained from well-grown vegetables 
of the more important kinds, and it is not therefore 



* * * * r r 

A f * X Y ? 

*> r * 

* * * ? r * 

* * p * % > 



/ > * * / p 



Diagram 4. — Fruit and Vegetables or Flowers. (See page 32.) 

Apples at 30 feet by 30 feet in three lines. The intermediate spaces 
30 yards wide, cropped with vegetables or flowers. Between the 
trees as in Diagram 1 or 3. 

[Scale, 1 inch = 30 yards. 



3 o THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



surprising if these crops rank high amongst those to 
which a grower turns his attention. 

Hardy Fruits 

Hardy fruits are indispensable wherever the soil and 
situation are suitable, and the best varieties well grown 
constitute a most important part of a market-man's 
assets. In favourable seasons the returns will always 
be substantial for the space occupied, and occasionally 
special crops of choice fruits will yield a profit un- 
surpassed by any other form of out-door cultivation. 
But there are always the weather risks to be reckoned 
upon, the spring frosts being the most disastrous, 
though high winds at the time when Apples, Pears, 
Cherries, or Plums are maturing may bring equally bad 
results in damage to the fruit. 

If it were not for these uncertainties, fruit-growing 
would be the most profitable form of utilising the land ; 
and even with these difficulties to contend against, taking 
a series of years, the average returns under the best 
systems and in the right situations compare very favour- 
ably with those from any other crops. When grown in 
combination with both vegetables and flowers, arranged 
upon the most economical methods, with the highest 
cultivation, the gross returns per acre often exceed 
any other form of land utilisation for cultural purposes. 
The kinds of fruits especially adapted to the soil should 
always have precedence : thus in one district Apples may 
thrive the best, in another Plums. Amongst small fruits, 
Strawberries would form the best paying crop in one 
place, and in another Currants or Gooseberries will be 
more profitable. These are points that each grower 
has to determine for himself, and they are worthy of 
his best attention, for if work is started with a mixed 
plantation it is soon ascertained which crop is likely to 
yield the best returns in the locality. 



CROPS, METHODS, MANAGEMENT 31 



The Board of Agriculture Committee appointed to 
investigate matters relating to fruit-culture has stated 
that the total approximate area under fruit in Great 
Britain is about 300,000 acres. Though this is but 
a small proportion of the total amount of cultivated land 
(32 million acres for Great Britain and 15 million acres 
for Ireland are returned as under crops and grass), " the 
fruit industry appears to be most progressive, in fact it 
is the only form of agriculture which has exhibited any 
sign of progress in recent years." 1 

Plants and Flowers 

Plants grown out of doors to supply flowers for 
cutting constitute an important department, which can 
be well included with the others named in a general 
business. Where fruit-trees are grown as standards, 
not too closely planted, the ground beneath can be 
cropped with many spring-flowering plants, and this 
system has been adopted in the metropolitan counties 
for many years. Wallflowers are chiefly grown in this 
way, but many others can be included where the spaces 
between the rows of trees are sufficiently wide for the 
purpose. Such positions are, however, naturally best 
fitted for plants that flower before the trees are in full 
leaf. Of other plants that are largely grown out of 
doors for their flowers, the principal are Roses, Violets, 
Bulbs (comprising Daffodils, Tulips, and Lilies), Irises, 
Asters, Dahlias, Gaillardias, Lilies of the Valley, Paeonies, 
and early Chrysanthemums. Just as with the vegetables 
and fruits, some of these form specialities in certain 
localities, while a few constitute a trade in themselves, 
like the Daffodils in the Scilly Isles. 

Plants grown for sale from the open ground are 

1 The last official return of Market Garden acreage in Great Britain 
(1896) gives the total as 96,981 acres, which includes some fruit land. 



32 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 

mostly hardy perennials, of which large quantities are 
consigned to the markets in the early spring months. 
The demand for these has increased greatly in recent 
years, but the period during which they can be dealt 
with is of limited duration. Where a combination of 
the nursery business with market gardening is carried 
on, as some growers do very successfully, hardy trees 
and shrubs are included in the stock, besides a general 
collection of fruit-trees and bushes. When a stock is 
once raised, the space required for its maintenance 
is comparatively small, and an annual auction sale is a 
convenient means of disposing of the surplus. But in 
some country markets growers make up bundles of trees 
for the sale day throughout the winter. Unfortunately 
so much carelessness is often displayed in the selection 
and naming of such consignments, that they have fallen 
generally into bad repute. The remedy for this state of 
affairs is in the hands of every grower. 

Arrangement of Crops 

Where vegetables, fruits, and flowers are grown upon 
one holding for market purposes, the three chief methods 
of arrangement in use are: (i) the mixed system, where 
the fruit trees are planted closely with bush fruits as 
under-crops, and all intermediate spaces are filled, as 
long as the growth of the trees and bushes will permit, 
with vegetables or flowers ; (2) the separate method, 
each crop being allotted distinct plots of land j and 
(3) the alternate system, where fruits and vegetables, or 
fruits and flowers, are planted in alternate blocks. The 
first is practised largely, and is regarded as the most 
economical in some districts, but it is attended by several 
disadvantages in connection with routine cultivation, in 
the gathering of the fruits or under-crops, and in 
securing the best results with them. 



CROPS, METHODS, MANAGEMENT 33 



The second enables cultivation to be carried out 
thoroughly and conveniently, but as regards the fruit 
quarters the land cannot always be utilised to the fullest 
extent, and it often happens that the best aspect and the 
best soil for the fruits are also those where vegetables, 
especially early crops, would succeed most satisfactorily. 

The third, or alternate method, provides a com- 
bination of the recommendations of the other systems, 
with a reduction of the defects to a minimum. The 
best positions can be equally utilised for all crops, and 
if any kind of rotation is desirable or necessary, it can be 
readily arranged. In addition to this the fruit trees, if 
in single, double, or triple lines, are more fully exposed 
to atmospheric and sun influences, they develop into 
finer specimens, the wood is better ripened, and the 
fruits assume a superior colour and flavour to those 
borne by trees in dense plantations. Then, too, the 
operations of spraying, pruning, and gathering are more 
conveniently performed ; while, if the lines are kept to 
certain varieties, and any of these fail, they can be 
removed and others put in their places without dis- 
turbing the arrangement of a whole plantation. Upon 
moderate slopes, towards the south, such systems are 
excellent in all respects. 

The distances allowed between the lines of trees 
may be varied according to convenience and the 
fruits or other crops which are to be grown. We 
know examples where the distances allowed are from 
20 yards to 60 yards or more, but within reasonable 
limits the trees afford a measure of protection to the 
other crops, so that can be borne in mind when pre- 
paring the plans, as local surroundings would require 
consideration. Usually such blocks can be only cultivated 
in one direction, following that of the tree lines, but 
cross-cultivation is not of so much moment where the 
land is subjected to the constant working of market 
c 



34 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 

garden methods. For strawberries this alternate system 
is well adapted, because they are only retained for a 
few years on one plot, and, more than most fruit crops, 
they are benefited by having fresh land. Root crops 
can also be alternated with other vegetables in a similar 
way ; while bush fruits, such as gooseberries or currants, 
succeed remarkably when planted upon land previously 
cropped with vegetables. Many exhausting crops can 
be followed by flowers with advantage, as too rich a 
soil is apt to induce excessive leaf growth. 

Economy in Production 

Several matters in connection with commercial horti- 
culture do not receive the attention they merit, and one 
of the most important of these is economy in production. 
This does not mean a blind reduction of expenses to the 
lowest level, which may really defeat the best objects in 
view, but a constant endeavour to secure efficiency, to 
avoid waste of labour or material, to increase the output 
of the power employed, or to improve the quality of the 
products. These results are partly dependent upon the 
employment of the most skilful labour at fair wages, 
and upon the supervision exercised ; but they are also 
largely influenced by the knowledge, experience, and 
judgment of the directing power. Many instances could 
be given where a falsely named economy, founded upon 
insufficient or inaccurate knowledge, has produced far 
worse financial results than the defects it was intended to 
remove. On the other hand, some of the most successful 
growers for market have, at times, incurred expenditure 
in the organisation or development of their business which 
appeared excessive to the unenterprising, though it 
resulted in gains out of all proportion to the outlay. 
Keen observation and sound personal knowledge must 
furnish the key to success in such matters, and it is wise 



* 



f-LQkHSZS. 



<0 * 



Diagram 5. — To Illustrate the Arrangement of Mixed Fruit 
Plantations, with alternate Spaces for Vegetables or Flowers. 

Standard Apples ( x ), 30 feet by 30 feet. Standard or half-standard 
Plums, or bush Apples (0) at 15 feet apart. Gooseberries or Currants 
(•) at 5 feet. 

[Scale, 2 inches = 30 feet. 



36 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



to remember that though the proverb states, "In the 
multitude of counsellors there is safety," the safety is 
often on the side of the advisers only. 

The Use of Fertilisers 

One point that is either neglected entirely, or if 
recognised is too often not utilised to the fullest extent, 
is in regard to the use of chemical or artificial manures 
in addition to natural manures. "When the position of 
the market ground permits the carting of produce to 
market, the vehicles returning loaded with stable manure, 
the supplies are plentiful and the cost small. A grower 
therefore does not feel disposed to incur additional ex- 
penditure in purchasing artificials. In some of these 
cases, however, a judicious occasional dressing of special 
fertilisers produces good results, though their value is 
especially found when the supply of natural manure 
only suffices for small dressings. Applications of 
carefully chosen fertilisers as sources of nitrogen, potash, 
or phosphoric acid, are then of considerable advantage, 
as many have proved by experience. Under heavily 
manured land, lime is also frequently beneficial. 

Interesting information in this direction, particularly 
as regards vegetables, has been afforded by the experi- 
ments conducted by Dr Bernard Dyer and Mr Shrivell 
on a farm near Tonbridge, in Kent. In our own experi- 
ence we have had instances where artificials alone have 
either failed to produce any appreciable effect upon 
certain soils and crops, or the result has even been 
unfavourable ; but in soils which have had abundance 
of natural manure, or in addition to moderate dressings 
of either stable or farmyard manure, the effects have 
been conspicuous 

Insects and Diseases 
The judicious use and prompt application of insecti- 
cides or fungicides to plants attacked by pests or diseases 



CROPS, METHODS, MANAGEMENT 37 



is another subject which does not receive adequate atten- 
tion in many commercial centres. There is too much of 
the inclination to receive such evils with folded hands as 
something inevitable or irremediable. Yet, both in the 
direction of prevention and cure, great advance has been 
made in recent years. It is true that success has not 
attended all efforts, but the investigation of the life 
history of some insects, or the minute forms of parasitic 
fungi, is difficult and tedious, though that must precede 
any systematic attempt at dealing with our enemies. 
Again, some of those who have employed the substances 
recommended have not exercised the promptness, discre- 
tion, or caution that is needed, with the result that the 
desired object has not been attained, or the plants have 
been seriously injured. The knapsack sprayers and other 
machines now in the market permit the work to be done 
in an efficient and economical manner, while the majority 
of the substances employed are obtainable at moderate 
prices. Preparations of Paris Green, tobacco, quassia, 
soft soap, and petroleum are those most largely used as 
insecticides ; copper sulphate constituting the principal 
basis of effective fungicides, though plenty of special 
mixtures are sold that have proved well fitted for their 
respective purposes. 

Cultivation under Glass 

The department of market gardening concerned with 
the production of crops under glass is one of the most 
astonishing developments of modern times. In such 
centres as the Worthing district on the Sussex coast, 
or north of London from Edmonton to Broxbourne, at 
Swanley in Kent, as well as in many other localities, 
a great acreage is under glass, and the produce in the 
shape of fruits, plants, or flowers is enormous. To 
deal with such a gigantic business, a special treatise 
would be needed of considerable proportions ; here our 



38 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



only object is to indicate its importance as a part of 
market gardening generally. 

How materially the possession of glass-houses aids the 
resources of a cultivator is proved by the small size of 
the holdings from which a living can be made when the 
efforts of the land-worker are supplemented by a few 
suitable structures. Where the proximity to a market 
or town affords the opportunity, many men with from 
half an acre to an acre of land and a few hundred feet 
run of glass-houses have created a business and secured 
a respectable living, which their means would have 
otherwise rendered impossible. Not only is work pro- 
vided at times when the weather and season would 
cause enforced idleness on the open land, but a con- 
tinual supply of produce available for sale is also 
afforded. Further, whether on large or small hold- 
ings, the addition of glass-houses helps to ensure the 
grower against the disasters which at times overtake 
out-of-doors crops. Though the occupants of such 
structures are not exempt from attacks and failures, 
it is rare that heavy losses in both directions would 
occur at the same time. 

The market man does not require, and cannot afford 
either to buy or erect, the elaborate structures which 
are seen in the private gardens of wealthy persons. The 
simplest and plainest of houses consistent with reason- 
able durability and adaptation to the purpose in view are 
needed, such indeed as many an intelligent man with an 
elementary knowledge of carpentry and building can put 
up for himself, with the assistance of a handy helper. 
All the materials are cheap — bricks, wood, and glass 
are obtainable at low rates, and the most serious outlay 
of all, the artificial heating with hot-water apparatus, can 
for many purposes be dispensed with, at all events 
when starting on a small scale. 

The assistance rendered to plants in our climate early 



CROPS, METHODS, MANAGEMENT 39 



in the year by the protection of glass and the storage of 
the sun's rays is surprising to the inexperienced. From 
the seller's point of view it is important to have his 
produce in the markets as early as possible, and with 
many crops, if a week or two can be gained in advance 
of outdoor produce in bulk, the prices are often more 
remunerative than where a much heavier expenditure 
has been incurred for heating apparatus and fuel to 
secure their crops extra early. In this way wooden 
frames with movable glass lights, hand frames or lights 
of various forms, bell-glasses, and the French " cloches," 
are also utilised to good purpose, both for the protection 
of tender plants placed out of doors, and for forward- 
ing their development. Thousands of tons of grapes, 
cucumbers, and tomatoes have been grown for market 
in England in unheated glass houses ; the chief difficulty 
has been the utilisation of such houses in the winter 
months. With the help of moderate heating power they 
are available for many purposes, and with the improved 
forms of economical boilers now obtainable the expendi- 
ture is judicious if the means are at command. In the 
southern parts of the kingdom, and places at a distance 
from the coal-fields, the cost of fuel is a heavy item, 
whatever form is used, but it is less serious for growers in 
a position to buy in quantities during the summer months, 
or who can secure contracts for coke supply over a long 
period. 

Span-roof houses are generally preferred, and they are 
erected now with much more spacious dimensions as 
regards width and height than formerly, with the rafters 
farther apart, and consequently larger sheets of glass are 
used. The objects are obvious a larger body of air is 
enclosed, and there is freer exposure to the sun's in- 
fluence, while greater roof space is provided for anything 
trained inside. If walls are available of sufficient height, 
and with a southerly aspect, lean-to houses, or those 



4 o THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



termed three-quarter spans, can be cheaply erected, 
and will prove useful for early produce, often without 
artificial heating arrangements. 

Forcing fruits or flowers for the winter, or early in 
the year, is a difficult, expensive, and uncertain business, 
severely testing the skill of the most experienced 
growers, especially in town districts, with all the dis- 
advantages of a smoke-laden atmosphere, dense fogs, 
and diminished light to contend against. Some succeed 
in a satisfactory degree, but they also have heavy losses 
to face at times, and it is not a branch of the business 
beginners should venture upon. 

Another form of forcing by which sheds are utilised 
for securing early Rhubarb, Sea-kale, or Asparagus, is, 
however, worthy of attention ; the expenses are not 
large, the demand is considerable and fairly constant. 
There is more room for extension in methods of this 
kind than in forcing crops under glass for the earliest 
markets, though competitors already in the field are 
numerous, and some have engaged in the work on a 
large scale. 

The value of even temporary protection in the direc- 
tion of preserving many crops from injury, and thus 
avoiding heavy losses, is often shown. Here is one 
example which occurred in the early autumn of 1 905. 
In a market garden district where some hundreds of 
acres were planted with early flowering Chrysanthemums 
for cutting, the whole crop was rendered quite unsale- 
able by two or three sudden sharp frosts. A short 
distance away in a similar situation a grower who had a 
large acreage under these plants adopted a simple means 
of protection, by means of slight wooden uprights and 
cross pieces at intervals, across which tiffany or similar 
light material was stretched at night. The cost in 
materia] and labour was an insignificant percentage on 
the total value of the crop, and the whole of the flowers 



CROPS, METHODS, MANAGEMENT 41 



were saved and sold. If no frost had come the cost 
incurred would have been a small deduction from the 
gross receipts ; but the risk of loss without such aid was 
a great matter, and proved in the first case very serious 
to the growers affected. 

One matter in connection with cultivation under glass 
requires attention, and that is the provision of adequate 
and suitable water-supplies. On a small place it is 
not a serious affair, but upon a large one it assumes 
rather alarming proportions. Thus Mr Peter Kay of 
the Claigmar Vineyard, Finchley, has adopted a plan 
by which he estimates that some £600 per annum is 
saved. By the construction of reservoirs and pumping 
apparatus, the rain is systematically stored and utilised. 
The average rainfall at Finchley is about 25 inches a 
year, which is equivalent to 562,500 gallons per acre; 
and as the glass-houses cover 34 acres of land, the total 
amount of rain falling upon that area would be some- 
thing like 19 million gallons per annum. The reservoir 
is constructed to hold one-fourth of this, namely five 
million gallons, or the three months' average. Mr Kay 
gave the particulars of his experiment before the Royal 
Horticultural Society, September 25, 1900, and the 
paper appeared in that Society's Journal. That much 
water is wasted through insufficient provision for storing 
the rain is an unquestionable fact, and it applies to many 
places where the water-supply is very unsatisfactory ; 
yet if it were only remembered that an inch of rain 
means about 22,500 gallons per acre, some method of 
catching and storing this valuable supply would be de- 
vised wherever there are many buildings or glass-houses 
and quantities of water are in demand. In the absence 
of sufficient roof space it has been suggested that a 
definite area of land should be covered or cemented and 
the rain conducted into pipes and tanks. Any waste or 
sterile portion of land could be used for such a purpose ; 



42 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



we know of one case where an experiment of the kind 
proved satisfactory, and much less expensive than sinking 
wells in that particular instance. 

Where running streams or ponds supplied by springs 
are at command it may be worth the expense of raising 
the water by mechanical means instead of depending 
upon the laborious and costly method of carting. 
Hydraulic rams can be used when a sufficient fall is 
obtainable, but there are several excellent forms of lightly 
constructed iron windmill pumps that are both cheap 
and serviceable in this work, and they are adapted for 
use anywhere. Whether spring, river, or rain water is 
the source of supply, ample tank space must be provided 
for storage and exposure of the water to atmospheric 
influences. To ensure the raising of the temperature 
the tanks should be wide and somewhat shallow, in 
preference to those that are narrow and deep. 

The buildings required upon a market-garden hold- 
ing will vary with the extent and the character of the 
business conducted. In most cases roomy sheds for 
sorting and packing purposes are essential ; if fruits are 
grown largely, especially late apples and pears, storing 
arrangements must be provided. For the first-named 
object, cheap boarded buildings, with ample windows, 
will suffice, or corrugated iron sheds are obtainable in 
various sizes and shapes at moderate prices prepared for 
erection on any site. Some firms quote prices including 
railway carriage, and completing the building in accord- 
ance with specifications and plans which are supplied 
free. Besides the provision for packing, space is needed 
for keeping empty boxes and baskets under cover, also 
some special accommodation is required when] these are 
made upon the premises. It is advisable to have some 
sheds open in the front, and of sufficient height to permit 
a loaded cart or waggon being drawn under the roof in 
wet weather. In storing fruits extra care is necessary 



CROPS, METHODS, MANAGEMENT 43 

to provide buildings with thicker walls of some non- 
conducting material, so that an even temperature can be 
maintained. Double wooden walls packed with sawdust 
or formed entirely of woven straw, or heather, have 
proved satisfactory, and excavations in the side of banks 
(especially in light soils) bricked up inside have also 
answered the required purpose. 

The simplest and most efficacious method of storing 
apples and pears is by fitting the inside of the fruit 
room with sliding shelves constructed of stout lath or 
thin wood in strips, shallow trays being formed that will 
hold from half a bushel to a bushel of fruit. 

Storage space is also requisite for some roots that 
cannot be conveniently clamped out in the open ; bulbs, 
tubers, etc., for another season's planting similarly need 
dry quarters safe from frost. The stabling for horses, 
cart sheds, and various other buildings must be pro- 
vided in all large establishments. 

A Summary of Cultural Essentials 

A market gardener who wishes to succeed in his 
business must be in all respects a skilful cultivator, and 
should have gained his practical experience by working 
through all departments. But it is.not the object of this 
treatise to deal with the details of the various crops and 
their requirements, as these are fully discussed in other 
books of this series. It will suffice here if we briefly 
summarise the essentials that must not be ignored, and 
upon the due observance of which most of the instructions 
and suggestions in this volume depend for their efficient 
application. 

Outdoor Cultivation 

I. Cleanliness. It does not pay to grow weeds. 
The destruction of all, but especially those with creep- 



44 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



ing roots, or abundant, easily-dispersed seeds, must be 
followed up vigorously. 

2. Persistent Cultivation, i.e. the stirring, breaking, 
and deepening of soils, whenever the weather conditions 
permit such operations with safety. The deepening to 
be preferably effected by the gradual improvement of 
lower layers, and mixing with the upper portions, not 
by bringing up large quantities at once. When the 
subsoil is harsh or unfavourable, bringing it to the 
surface results in a total deterioration of the whole 
depth. 

3. Maintaining the fertility. Constantly adding arti- 
ficial and organic manure in proportion to the character 
of the soil and the crops removed, so that the essential 
elements may always be present in abundance, the 
physical condition being improved as regards aeration, 
warmth, and the chemical actions in the soil assisted by 
sufficient quantities of humus, i.e. decaying vegetable 
matter chiefly. 

4. Protecting crops from insects and diseases. Prompt 
adoption of measures for the destruction of insects, and 
the use of remedies for, or preventives against diseases. 
Equal or even greater attention is needed under glass, 
but more efficient means are available in the form of 
fumigators, which cannot be used out of doors with 
advantage. 

Under Glass Cultivation 

All the essential conditions are under the absolute 
control of the grower, except sun-heat and sun-light, 
but with such artificial arrangements the utmost care 
and the closest supervision are needed to guard against 
injurious excess or deficit. 

I. Temperature. The conservation of heat is mainly 
dependent upon sound roofs and thorough glazing. 
The maintenance of the requisitive temperature neces- 



CROPS, METHODS, MANAGEMENT 45 



sitates well arranged and efficient heating apparatus, 
suitable fuel, and skilful stoking. Extremes and sudden 
alternations of high and low temperatures should always 
be avoided. Plants seriously checked in leaf, growth, 
flower, or fruit development are often permanently 
injured, and their value, or that of the produce, greatly 
reduced. 

2. Ventilation. Adequate and easily worked means 
of ventilation is important. A gradual increase of 
ventilation is a safe way of decreasing temperature, and 
hardening plants for sale or use. Aeration is also 
necessary to the welfare of many plants. Excessive 
ventilation in highly heated houses is one of the causes 
of injurious checks noted in the preceding paragraph. 

3. Supplies of Water. A skilful gardener must have 
mastered the use of the water-can. It is an essential 
portion of his art in under-glass work. Plants grown 
in glass-houses are subjected to rapid evaporation, and 
those in pots have limited soil stores of moisture to draw 
upon. Constant attention is therefore requisite to keep 
the balance. In an atmosphere saturated with moisture 
the evaporation is proportionately reduced, but while 
essential to some plants that condition would be fatal 
to others, though between the extremes there are many 
stages that are helpful in preserving plant-health. 

4. Sun-light and Sun-heat. To benefit to the fullest 
extent by these influences early in the season, wide 
glass sheets, the reduction of rafters to the minimum 
consistent with stability, and a sharply angled roof 
facing south are essential. To these may be added the 
necessity for keeping the glass clean, both inside and 
outside the house, the latter being of urgent importance 
in town districts where the deposits from smoke-laden 
air are abundant. 

Insects and diseases are mentioned in preceding 
paragraphs. 



IMPORTANT DETAILS IN COMMERCIAL 
GARDENING 

Many varied circumstances and details exercise a 
material influence upon success in commercial gardening, 
and every man who wishes to make substantial progress 
must give them his best attention, or he soon finds in the 
keen competition of the age that he is left in the rear. 
He must be a close observer as well as a good cultivator, 
and should be prepared to take the fullest advantage of 
all observations which indicate a reasonable chance of 
profit. Enterprise will often enable a man to find a 
fresh crop, or a more paying outlet for his produce, 
while another man is lamenting over quantities that 
remain on hand unsold, or who dolefully reckons up his 
losses on the low prices returned for goods sent to over- 
stocked markets. 

In the production of garden crops for sale on a large 
scale it is quite unavoidable that at times the rush and 
pressure will lead to rough-and-ready methods of work- 
ing ; but if the general organisation is good, such 
instances will be the exceptions ; where there is no 
well-considered system, however, " rough-and-ready " 
becomes the rule with disastrous results. In earlier 
days, when competition was less severe than it is in 
present times, some industrious growers who could turn 
out large crops of fairly well-grown produce were able 
to secure returns showing considerable profits, because 
their expenses in some directions were less than they are 
now. In these days mere bulk is not sufficient, a higher 
46 



COMMERCIAL GARDENING 47 



quality is demanded ; the produce must be presented to 
the buyer in the best condition, and no effort should be 
spared to ensure this if lasting reputation and sound 
trade are desired. In this connection therefore we will 
review some of the chief subjects which affect the results. 

Selection of Kinds and Varieties 

Quite apart from the larger question of the special 
crops a market gardener has to decide upon as most 
likely to repay him for his labour and outlay, is the 
secondary but still important selection of kinds and 
varieties. For instance, it may be considered that fruits 
offer the best prospect of profit in a particular soil and 
situation, and attention will, in consequence, be concen- 
trated upon these, though other crops will be grown 
besides. But the matter is not settled there ; considera- 
tion must be given to the point of which kind of fruit is 
the most promising, as apples, pears, and plums, cherries, 
small fruits, etc., and when that is disposed of the selection 
of the varieties requires careful attention, for a large 
share of success is usually dependent upon this. If 
varieties most suitable to the soil and district are 
obtained, and these also are adapted to the growers' 
special requirements, skilful cultivation ought then to 
yield the best results that can be possibly secured from 
land devoted to commercial gardening. The foremost 
growers have long recognised this in whatever depart- 
ment of horticulture they may work ; the seedsmen and 
raisers of new fruits, flowers, and vegetables have proved 
its truth repeatedly ; yet there are in many districts men 
who are struggling to extract a living from the land 
who practically disregard it. They prefer to keep to 
the " good old sorts " because they have seen several so- 
called novelties proved to be failures. Yet there are 
few of such men who have not also seen some of their 



48 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



more persevering and observant rivals reap substantial 
rewards from the discovery of varieties which for certain 
qualities have enabled them to command a ready sale, 
while the others have been wringing their hands or 
grieving about the decadence of trade. 

It might be thought needless to dwell upon this, but 
experience shows that the neglect of selection is too 
general, especially amongst the smaller growers, who 
should be particularly concerned in utilising every chance 
which might increase their returns. Obviously, it 
would be folly to discard proved sorts in favour of 
every variety brought into notice as a novelty. Still, a 
close watch should be kept for any improvement that 
gives promise of real value, and it pays any grower to 
test for himself a limited number of the best. The 
money value of a substantial advance upon varieties in 
general cultivation to a grower who is successful in 
procuring a large supply before others have found out 
its qualities, often means the making of a business. To 
every man who has had any experience in growing, 
buying, or selling, garden produce of all kinds, the 
knowledge must come that it is only possible to get 
" out of the rut " by raising something that is better in 
quality, more attractive, earlier, or cheaper, than the 
goods offered by his near or distant rivals. If this fact 
be not recognised, and the knowledge acted upon 
consistently and constantly, no competitor in the race 
of modern business-life can hope to gain a forward place. 

There is too much " looking over the hedge," i.e. 
imitation rather than originality. A man notices that 
his neighbour has some crop which he grows largely 
and well ; it is cleared away regularly with little waste 
or unsold remainders, and all the results seem very 
satisfactory, as the producer does not complain about 
ruinously low prices, or does so with all the evidence 
of prosperity about him that belies his grumbling. The 



COMMERCIAL GARDENING 



watcher immediately sets about imitating his neighbour, 
and congratulates himself upon his smartness when he 
also has secured a stack of the gold-producing variety. 
Then, too often, he discovers that while he has been 
"watching," others have been doing the same thing, 
and where a few had a profitable market, the many 
bring about a state of affairs in which the prices 
scarcely pay the cost of production and carriage. 
Beyond that he also finds that the man who had the real 
" smartness " was the one who secured the first command 
of the market, and who by the time the "watcher" is 
preparing to imitate him is on the look-out for something 
to take the place of the crop or variety which has 
rendered him such good service. 

Variety Trials 

A business man cannot indulge in " fads " ; that is 
not the originality which is requisite. Neither can he 
be a scientific experimenter on a large scale unless he 
is prepared to pay for his amusement. But it is in the 
power of every grower to be a practical experimenter, 
and one of the departments to which he can profitably 
turn his attention is the testing and comparison of 
varieties. Occasionally, under special circumstances, it 
may even pay him to become a raiser of varieties for 
his own use, though in a general way it answers better 
to let the large seedsmen or wholesale dealer perform 
this work. Hundreds of market men in the principal 
centres grow their own selections of Tomatoes, Cucum- 
bers, and many vegetable crops, but they find it exceed- 
ingly difficult to prevent deterioration, and sometimes 
this proves a serious matter when the crop is grown 
extensively. For instance, in one district where Cab- 
bages are cultivated for the early spring markets on a 
large area of land, it is customary for the growers to save 

D 



So THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



their own seed every season. Before cutting is com- 
menced, those Cabbages which are to be saved for seed 
are marked with sticks, the best and earliest heads being 
always selected. But in the rush of marketing the crop 
the sticks are frequently shifted or knocked down, with 
the result that, unless most careful supervision is exer- 
cised, seed of an inferior type is obtained, which may 
lower the standard of a large crop. 

Notwithstanding such mischances, however, every 
grower should keep close observation upon his own 
stock, as both seedlings and " sports " may appear that 
will pay well for increase, and in such a case, if the 
novelty is of sterling value, the cultivator is sure for 
the time being, at least, that he holds the whole of the 
stock. If of exceptional merit, it may prove a sub- 
stantial asset, and may pay to distribute in the trade. 

The chief and most readily available sources of 
novelties for market growers are the large seed raisers 
in the United Kingdom and elsewhere, who devote 
considerable capital and land to the highly important 
work of producing improvements in cultivated plants. 
Under the right conditions the business is a lucrative 
one, but it is none the less work of such great public 
value that it is deserving of generous recognition when 
it is conducted on the right lines. It is impossible that 
all novelties can prove to be of special value. That 
must be largely a matter for individual growers to 
determine in accordance with their requirements. But 
there is no question that the firms with any reputation 
to lose take the greatest care to avoid misrepresentation 
of the qualities ascribed to productions sent out as 
novelties. This is not a passing opinion, but is founded 
upon an intimate knowledge of the methods adopted 
by the largest firms in the country and on the Con- 
tinent. For that reason it is strongly recommended to 
all market growers not merely to give a close inspection 



COMMERCIAL GARDENING 51 



to the catalogues, but to endeavour to see the novelties 
growing, or at exhibitions, and then found upon these 
observations a trial for themselves. 

The official trials of the Royal Horticultural Society, 
the exhibits at the fortnightly meetings of the Fruit, 
Vegetable, and Floral Committees of this body, and the 
trial grounds conducted by some of the County Councils, 
afford abundant object-lessons of the greatest value. 
The utmost advantage should be taken of every source of 
information, including the numerous excellent periodicals 
devoted to horticulture, which contain much useful 
information respecting all novelties as they appear. 

The characteristics of new varieties which especially 
appeal to the market grower and to the public may be 
briefly reviewed under the following heads, viz., Earli- 
ness, Productiveness, Constitution and Duration, Appear- 
ance and Quality. 

Earliness. — In favourable situations, and by skilful 
cultivation, it is possible to obtain some outdoor crops 
much earlier than is usual, and the pecuniary advantage 
of these first supplies is well understood. But it is not 
always recognised how greatly the work may be assisted 
by growing the early selections of standard crops, vege- 
tables in particular, which are being continually raised and 
distributed. If a week, or even a few days, can be gained 
in the time a crop is ready for market, it often means all 
the difference between a substantial return with a good 
margin of profit and a result which barely pays expendi- 
ture. In our variable climate there must be a limit 
within which such earliness can be considered reason- 
ably safe ; it is useless incurring the cost of producing 
an early crop that runs a serious risk of being cut off 
by frost. With the earliest garden produce there will 
always be some uncertainty as to results, but it is the 
same here as in other investments — if the profits are 
large the danger of loss must also be reckoned in the 



52 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



account. Perhaps no crop better illustrates the demand 
for earliness than peas, for within the past fifty years 
large numbers of varieties have been raised and sent out 
with special qualifications, amongst which earliness has 
taken a prominent place. Yet every year some addition 
to the lists is made which is said to be a few days earlier 
than the older forms. If the season and weather would 
have permitted we should have been able to gather 
peas out-of-doors in January by now. Still the induce- 
ment is great, for it is within my own experience, as 
well as of many other growers, that a difference of a 
week has meant 100 per cent, difference in the price 
realised. As an old grower quaintly puts it, in one 
week he can procure " more for pods " than he can in 
the next week " for peas." 

Extra late varieties which come in after the bulk of 
supplies is exhausted, also command good prices in some 
seasons ; but if the main crops are abundant or prolonged 
they do not give much satisfaction, and generally there 
is more uncertainty about the demand than in the case 
of early varieties. This especially applies to vegetables, 
but in the case of fruits, late varieties, with good keeping 
qualities, may often be reserved until a first-class market 
is secured. There is another point in favour of late 
varieties generally, and that is they are usually of higher 
quality than the very early ones. 

Productiveness. — The commercial value of a new variety 
which possesses increased cropping qualities is consider- 
able. It means the extension of the producing capabilities 
of land materially when a large acreage is allotted to a 
particular crop. Therefore it is a property that must be 
regarded with marked favour by any grower for profit. 
Increased fertility in pod and fruit-bearing plants is 
commonly attended by a diminution in size, but that is 
not a disadvantage within certain limits. A large crop 
of medium produce will usually yield a better result 



COMMERCIAL GARDENING 



than a small amount of large size. But in the extreme, 
ue. undue smallness through heavy cropping, returns are 
often very unsatisfactory for the producer. Experience 
and good judgment are, in consequence, needed to place 
the true value upon a variety which is claimed to possess 
an unusual development of the productive character. 
Still, it never pays a market man to grow " shy" forms 
of anything, however good the quality may be, as there 
is the same risk of loss from weather influences and the 
same cost in cultivation. It is always possible, on the 
other hand, by the aid of the right manures, by the 
highest culture, or by judicious thinning, to increase the 
size of produce if there be a sufficiently good crop to pay 
for the outlay. 

Co7istitution and Duration. — The hardiness of a variety 
and the period during which it continues in use are also 
properties which demand consideration in all sections. 
As regards the first the difference is often conspicuous in 
forms of plants so closely allied that without determining 
the fact it could never be expected. The chief reason 
which has led to the extensive growth of the Pershore 
Plum in Worcestershire is the well-proved constitution, 
ue. hardiness and fertility of the variety, in contrast with 
others during a series of years. In consequence the 
tree has been planted largely in various positions, and 
the weight of evidence is, that although admittedly of 
inferior quality as a garden plum, the average, returns 
are too good to allow its being discarded in favour of 
others, for a crop may often be had when other varieties 
are almost fruitless. Similar results are found with 
many plants which come within the scope of the com- 
mercial gardener, and in any case a hardy constitution, 
that is usually also resistant to insect pests and fungus 
diseases, is a most valuable character for raisers to im- 
prove and growers to secure. 

The duration of the season or yielding period of a 



54 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



fruit or vegetable is equally of importance, but applies 
to a more limited number of kinds, as there are many 
which are cleared at one gathering only. Where suc- 
cessional' produce can be had from the same plants, it is 
evident there must be a larger return for the labour 
spent upon it and the land occupied. Connected with 
this may also be considered the "keeping" properties 
of certain varieties, which is shown more particularly 
in fruits and Potatoes, though it is seen, too, in many 
flowers grown for cutting. In any produce not required 
for immediate use, a lasting character is of substantial 
help to the grower, as it enables him to place it on the 
market in the best condition or to avoid any gluts. 

Appearance and Quality. — Although these have been 
placed last in the list of characters in market plants, 
that is not their position in the order of importance, 
but taken in conjunction with some of the other pro- 
perties enumerated they should rank high. The good 
appearance of any production for sale is not merely of 
great value, it is almost essential to securing the best 
prices, and no market grower can afford to disregard 
it. The majority of buyers judge by the eye alone, 
and what is pleasant to look upon will always command 
a wider market than imperfect, distorted, or disfigured 
produce. In many respects the popular judgment is 
correct : compare, for instance, the coarse, corrugated 
old forms of tomatoes with the smooth, even fruits in 
general favour at the present time. Every housewife 
can give unanswerable arguments in favour of an even- 
shaped potato with shallow " eyes 99 as against the rough, 
distorted tuber with "eyes" like pits. Equally, too, 
amongst apples for cooking, the heavily-ridged fruits 
with deep stalks and "eyes" are discarded in favour 
of the evenly-formed fruits where the waste in peeling 
is reduced to the minimum. Unfortunately, appearance 
and quality are not always synonymous ; some varieties, 



COMMERCIAL GARDENING 55 



both of fruits and vegetables, are very deceptive in this 
respect, and it is the chief reason that has led to the 
doubt with which experienced growers regard fine- 
looking exhibition novelties. If the quality of any 
variety required for eating is really bad, it is not 
worthy of cultivation, however tempting its appearance 
may be, and no grower who desires a good reputation 
and a permanent business should waste his labour over 
such a crop. The general public do not, however, 
require the highest excellence such as a connoisseur 
would expect and insist upon. The majority of buyers 
are more concerned with securing what they need at a 
moderate price, and they are content with average 
quality, provided the other conditions are satisfactory. 
For good average produce there is an enormous outlet 
in the large cities, but for that of exceptionally high 
quality, the market is restricted, though the prices 
secured may be more remunerative. It practically 
resolves itself into this : the grower who has an 
extensive area under cultivation must rely upon the 
multitude for the sale of the bulk of his produce, and 
it must therefore be cheap even though the quality 
be not of the highest. But the market-man who has 
a small piece of land to depend upon should aim at 
raising the best quality and securing the top prices. 
If the small man has to compete with the large grower 
in the same quality of produce, it is obvious that the 
former will be placed at a great disadvantage*. In the 
limited number of cases where appearance, quality, and 
quantity are combined, the ideal approach to perfection 
is realised if the best cultivation be also provided. 

The question of the market value attaching to size in 
garden productions requires a few remarks under this 
head. Excessive size is so often associated with coarse- 
ness and inferior quality, that it is not surprising there 
is considerable prejudice against such varieties in the 



56 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



better markets. At the same time, within reasonable 
limits, size commands a money value which growers 
cannot afford to overlook. For example, in the "West 
of London fruiterers' shops, extra large fruits of Cox's 
Orange Pippin Apples may be seen at 6d. each, equal 
to about 2s. per lb., and small fruits of the same variety 
similarly well coloured, and quite as good in quality, 
are sold at 6d. per lb. Again, another illustration is 
afforded in a cabbage-growing district where small 
varieties of the Ellam's Early type have been almost 
entirely discarded in favour of selections of the larger 
Offenham. The demand for early cabbages is great, 
but the larger heads command the best prices, although 
the smaller ones of the above named have often more 
solid hearts and in many cases a greater proportion of 
eatable substance. As regards cooking apples also, 
large fruits secure a much better market than small 
ones, especially early in the season, provided they are 
not coarse or ill-formed. Therefore in the selection of 
varieties the property of size cannot be altogether over- 
looked, though it must not be followed throughout as 
an invariable rule that the largest produce pays the 
best. 

Colour exercises some influence upon prices, especially 
in fruits, brightly coloured Apples in particular realising 
a much more ready sale than those of dull tints. Con- 
sequently a variety which possesses a good constitution 
and fertility with richly coloured fruits, whether new 
or old, is worthy of attention. Pears are mostly deficient 
in bright colours, except shades of yellow, but the few 
which do display more tempting tints are always market 
favourites. Strawberries, Raspberries, Red Currants, 
and Plums are all rendered more saleable by bright, 
rich, and clear colours, and this also applies to Tomatoes 
with equal force. 

In most vegetables the only colour which has a selling 



\ 



COMMERCIAL GARDENING 57 



value is green, and how valuable this may be is proved 
in the case of Peas, for the varieties which show the 
deepest tints of green in pod and seed are always in 
demand. With dwarf and runner Beans, the forms with 
brightest green pods are also the favourites with 
purchasers. Under this head may be considered the 
negation of colour, i.e. pure white, which is important 
in blanched vegetables, such as Sea-kale and White 
Celery, or Cauliflowers and Broccoli. Varieties which 
naturally approach the condition required most readily 
and clearly should have the preference. 

Amongst market flowers, colours are all important in 
conjunction with durability. Bright, clear, well defined 
tints are in better demand than mixed or dull hues, 
and though taste varies at times with regard to the 
colours most in request, yet the chief general favour is 
extended to the primary colours and gradations of these 
rather than to mixtures. A few exceptions occur, 
amongst which Roses may perhaps be placed, as crimson 
and magenta shades are admired in them that would 
scarcely be admitted in other flowers, but even with 
them clearness and brightness are essential. Pure 
white always has a high commercial value amongst 
flowers, and any addition to the list of those suitable for 
cutting or for decoration is sure to command attention. 

In the preceding notes the object has been to indicate 
the points upon which the market grower should con- 
centrate his attention in making selection of varieties for 
sale. The variation of cultivated plants is so great that 
the range is a wide one, but interesting as the whole 
subject is to the student, the market grower is only 
concerned with the forms which possess a money value. 
Public taste is not always quite the same, nor are the 
requirements in all districts and markets alike, but these 
are matters which every producer must determine for 
himself in accordance with the direction he intends to 



58 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



take for the disposal of his goods. It is especially desired 
to emphasise the advantage of keeping a close watch on 
all novelties as they appear that are likely to affect the 
particular branch of business being developed. Take 
every precaution that observation and trial can provide 
to make sure of the character of a novelty before launching 
largely into it ; but do not go to the other extreme and 
wait until it is seen that scores of growers are reaping 
substantial profits, because by that time the most re- 
munerative prices will be falling. Another point worthy 
of remembrance is that as soon as any particular variety 
or crop is being overdone and the markets glutted, it is 
well to turn attention to something else, at any rate for 
a time. It not unfrequently happens that many growers 
will discontinue the cultivation, and if the plant possesses 
any real merit a demand will again arise for it. Should 
it, however, be a case where the public taste has changed 
or some substitute has been found that is preferred, it 
may be generally advisable to drop it entirely. Some 
judgment is necessary to determine if it is only a 
temporary or a permanent change, as this may depend 
upon a variety of circumstances, but it is a rare occurrence 
that the whole demand ceases at once, so the chief point 
is to reduce the stock proportionately. 



PREPARING PRODUCE FOR SALE 



The utmost care and skill expended upon cultivation 
can easily be (and often are) largely discounted by 
neglect in the methods of preparing the produce for 
sale. This is all the more deplorable when every detail 
has been closely studied up to a certain point, and then 
when the critical period is reached for presenting what 
has been grown to the consumers in the best possible 
way, it is practically left to its fate. Where inferior 
varieties are grown under the worst conditions, it is not 
surprising that a series of mistakes is completed by 
sending the produce to market in a slovenly manner. 
But from the experienced and able grower something 
different is reasonably expected. For years salesmen in 
the largest centres have endeavoured to impress upon 
growers the advantages derivable from greater attention to 
this matter, and many have been wise enough to profit by 
the advice given. As a result there has been a steady 
improvement amongst all the most up to date producers ; 
that there is still abundance of room for further advance 
is only too evident to those familiar with the British 
markets. Our foreign and Colonial rivals contribute 
abundant examples of the care they have proved to be pro- 
fitable, but though their methods excite admiration, some 
home growers are frequently content to stop at that, and 
continue unchanged the rough style of marketing which 
has prevailed in the past. 

Gathering and Collecting Crops 
The time and method of gathering produce from the 
land will exert a material influence upon the selling 

59 



60 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 

results. The special requirements of particular crops 
must be referred to under Fruit, Vegetables, and Flowers, 
but there are some general rules which apply in all cases. 
The first of these is that all practicable care should be 
exercised in the work, without going to any fantastic 
extremes which would increase the cost out of pro- 
portion to the benefit gained. It would seem almost 
needless to make a rule of such an obvious requisite, yet 
we have seen some most grievous and disastrous 

mistakes made in 
the matter, and it is 
evident also from 
the condition in 
which many con- 
signments reach the 
markets that similar 
errors are more fre- 

Sussex Truck Basket. (Osman & Co.) q uent tnan tne Y 

should be. 

Not only should garden produce be in its best state 
as regards the period of development, but the freshness, 
cleanly condition, and care in handling demand due 
attention. With all vegetables and the softer fruits, 
freshness is an essential of the greatest importance ; if it 
is considered what a long and trying ordeal they have 
to be subjected to in conveyance by road and rail, and 
in the markets or shops, before they arrive at the con- 
sumer's house, this would never be ignored. The best 
grown produce in a stale and flaccid state, in contrast 
with second-rate crops in a fresh and bright condition, is 
placed at a serious disadvantage, and the majority of 
purchasers will take the latter in preference. We have 
seen large and valuable consignments sold to hawkers 
at the lowest prices entirely on account of stale condition 
when they reached the markets. Gf course in some of 
these instances the fault rests with the railway 




PREPARING PRODUCE FOR SALE 61 



companies, or may arise from accidents out of the 
grower's control, but in a large proportion it is mainly 
due to the producer's neglect or bad system. The 
difference in the state of all the softer produce when 
gathered in early morning, as compared with that of 
similar crops collected later in the day under a hot sun, 
or in a drying wind, is conspicuous long before the 
consumer is reached. The ideal arrangement is to 
gather early and have the produce on sale the same 
morning, and where this can be realised the grower has 
overcome an enormous impediment in the road to success. 
Under the usual roundabout methods of marketing this 
can only be carried out within a moderate distance of 
the selling centre; if a long journey by train is an un- 
avoidable part of the programme, it is rare that the goods 
can be on sale until the following morning. When 
transmitted by passenger train, or by special arrange- 
ments for such fruits as Strawberries, long distances 
can be reached the same day and sales effected under 
the right conditions, provided the consignments are of 
sufficient value to pay for the expense. 

Amongst ordinary crops, which constitute the bulk of 
market consignments throughout the spring, summer, 
and autumn months, the majority are gathered in the 
afternoon or evening of the day preceding that when 
they are to be sold. In the hottest weather all soft, 
young, and tender green vegetables or salads are then 
in a semi-exhausted state, which results in a flabby 
appearance that is far from inviting. Some advantage 
is gained if such crops can be gathered quite late in the 
evening, when they have had time to partially recover 
from the effects of the day's heat, but with few 
exceptions the early morning has everything in its 
favour. Instances have occurred in my experience 
where early gathered consignments of the same crop 
have been sold in the next morning's market together 



6 2 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



with those collected some hours later, and the results 
were conspicuously in favour of the first named, despite 
the longer period which had elapsed from the time of 
removal from the ground. 

Freshness is therefore of the highest importance, but it 
must not be secured by neglect of other considerations. 
For instance, it is not advisable to gather crops in a wet 
state, particularly if they have to remain packed in boxes 
or baskets during a long journey. In the warmer part 
of the year, soft fruit or vegetable produce heats 
rapidly, and the decomposition induced soon renders it 
unfit for sale or consumption. But it is not only the wet 
state arising from rain which has to be avoided, but in 
clear weather on some heavy, cold soils the dews have 
quite as much effect in early morning. When the 
produce is to be sold the same morning or during the 
early part of the day, this may be really helpful ; but if 
the packages have to remain unopened until the 
following day, it is a disadvantage and should be avoided 
where possible. 

Cleanliness is another important consideration in the 
gathering, apart from any attention that may be given 
afterwards. The inclusion of rubbish of any kind, 
decayed or defective leaves, and soil-spattered samples, 
all assist in lowering the value of the other portion of 
the produce. As regards fruits, too, if the defective 
or diseased specimens that possess no saleable value are 
excluded at the time of gathering it reduces the after 
labour of sorting, and does not damage the better 
samples, as contact with damaged fruit is apt to do. 

Care in handling garden produce applies more especially 
to fruits which are most easily injured by rough treat- 
ment, the slightest bruise even in hard Apples and Pears 
soon manifesting the effect in disfiguring marks and 
decayed tissue. Such defects quickly become visible, 
and fine fruits may be reduced to the price of third-class 



PREPARING PRODUCE FOR SALE 63 



samples by the carelessness of gatherers. But vegetables 
also pay for the due exercise of care in the gathering, 
green produce in particular like Cabbages, Savoys, 
Kale, Lettuces, and Endive, have a sorry appearance when 
a number of their leaves are broken or damaged. It is 
easy to lower the market value of a crop seriously in 
this way, and early Cabbages especially show the evil 
effects of rough gathering. Potatoes cannot be treated 
with the same tenderness as dessert Pears or Plums, but 
there is no reason why they should not be secured 
with more care than is frequently extended to them. It 
seems to be a prevalent idea that it is impossible to 
bruise a Potato by any amount of roughness, yet it can 
be and is done much too often, while purchasers fancy 
the discoloured blotches they find on peeling the tubers 
for cooking are due to disease. Experienced exhibitors 
at shows know full well the value of care in lifting and 
preparing Potatoes for competition, and though a market 
grower who has many acres of tubers to lift cannot 
expend the same labour on the task, yet he can do 
something in the direction with profit to himself. Much 
the same applies to root crops generally ; within reason- 
able limits they pay for all the care bestowed upon them, 
in removing them from the ground under the best 
conditions and in avoiding injury as far as possible. 

The operation of cleansing after a crop is taken from 
the land is principally requisite for roots such as Potatoes, 
Carrots, Parsnips, Turnips or Radishes, as well as those 
earthed up for blanching like Celery or Sea-kale. As 
regards the four first named, when the soil is not of a 
very adhesive character, and it is in a fairly dry state, 
all that may be needful will be the removal of the soil 
by hand, or by sifting in the course of sorting, in the 
case of Potatoes. A large amount of soil adhering to any 
roots sent for sale has not only a disfiguring effect, it 
lowers the value materially, and those over-sharp 



64 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



individuals who might imagine they would gain in the 
weight are labouring under a mistake. Any one familiar 
with the markets knows the value attached by purchasers, 
whether dealers or consumers, to clean root crops, and 
it is one of the special advantages of soils which are not 
unduly heavy, that the crops turn out clean in the 
course of lifting without necessitating much after- 
attention. 

Cleansing pays in every case, but the actual subjection 
of a crop to a washing process is not practicable under 
all circumstances, though it is essential to the proper 
marketing of some produce. For example, Radishes 
nearly always require a preparatory washing, and there 
is no question that Carrots and Turnips are equally im- 
proved in appearance and value. The same remark 
applies to Celery, which should always be sent to the best 
markets in a clean condition. 

Wherever there is a good supply of water — and this 
is essential in all the best market gardens — the provision 
of an arrangement for the systematic washing of crops 
that require it is neither expensive nor difficult. A 
series of large shallow tubs or tanks which can be readily 
and quickly filled or emptied and a connecting pipe 
with large taps for the supply, with large plugs at the 
base for outlet, will answer the purpose, while if it is 
desired to save the water, a channel may be constructed 
to convey it to a tank at a lower level. If the washing 
of crops is attempted on a large scale it is no use half 
doing the work ; do it as thoroughly as possible, and 
have the roots or other produce cleansed, not merely 
smudged over, they are almost better left in their natural 
state. This is one reason why several tubs are needed, 
so that after the washing, rinsing in fresh water will 
complete the operation. This seems a small detail for a 
large undertaking, but these small matters tell on ultimate 
success, as every successful business man has proved. 



PREPARING PRODUCE FOR SALE 65 




Swedish Chip Fruit-Basket. 



Fruit gathering must be regulated by the purpose for 
which it is required, and though the preceding remarks 
have a general application, the particular object in view 
will determine the 
time at which the 
work should be 
done. Fruits to be 
sold in a ripe con- 
dition should have 
reached their full 
development as re- 
gards size, but must 
not be in the last 
stage of ripeness 
when the tissues are 
becoming soft. In 
hot weather, when 
such rapidly ripen- 
ing fruits as straw- 
berries are collected, 
this matter demands 
the closest attention 
and the judgment 
derived from ex- 
perience. A small 
proportion of over- 
ripe fruits which 
become crushed on 
the journey to 
market is quite 
sufficient to damage 
a large quantity of 
berries and spoil their sale. Due attention to frequent 
gathering will ensure the collection of fruits before they 
reach this stage and a material saving will be effected. 
Of all fruits which growers have to market in a ripe 

E 




Fruit and Flower Basket. 

(Messrs Osman & Co., 132-134 Commercial 
Street, E.) 



66 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



condition, none is more difficult to deal with satis- 
factorily than the Strawberry, for besides being fully 
developed, it must have the best colour possible, which 
it may only attain a short time before it is dead ripe. 
While it is extremely undesirable that the fruits should 
be gathered when hard, green, or white, with a 
minimum of colour, it is on the whole safer to take 
them under-ripe than err in the other direction.. They 
need to be sufficiently firm to travel safely, yet should 
appear in the market in their most tempting guise for 
the purchaser, and that is where the inexperienced or 
careless producer often fails. Some varieties are much 
more easily dealt with in this respect than others, 
notably the well-known Sir Joseph Paxton, which 
possesses an important character of a market-man's 
Strawberry in its firmness of flesh, and the fruit can in 
consequence be gathered with safety in a much later 
stage than the soft-fleshed varieties, admirable though 
they be in other ways. 

These remarks particularly apply to fruits intended 
for consumption in a fresh state, and some modification 
is needed where the Strawberries are to be converted into 
jam. It is then advisable to be able to gather as large a 
quantity as possible at a time, therefore they are taken 
when the bulk is in the best condition, which is after the 
earliest and finest fruits have been consigned to market. 
For the best quality preserves it is quite as undesirable 
to have the fruit in an over-ripe and smashed state as it 
is to have it hard and unripe, that is, where " whole 
fruit " jam is the speciality. If it is all to be pulped, 
inequality in the ripening is of little moment, provided 
the majority of the fruits are ripe and of good colour. 

Similar methods are adopted with Raspberries, which 
form another very critical soft fruit crop to gather in 
the best condition. If it is desirable to gather Straw- 
berries in a dry state, it is absolutely essential to secure 



PREPARING PRODUCE FOR SALE 67 



Raspberries in that condition, for they are the most 
perishable outdoor fruits a grower has to deal with in 
a ripe state. Both are picked with the stalks by pre- 
ference for ordinary market work, but sometimes they 
are gathered without the stalks for preservers, though 
occasionally these prefer to have that work performed in 
their own factories. 

Ripe Gooseberries demand careful handling and 
prompt gathering before they are too advanced. Heavy 
rain after a dry time is apt to lead to serious losses in 
burst fruits when the last stage of ripening is reached, 
so judgment and observation are requisite to minimise 
risks. Ripe Plums are also liable to much damage by 
cracking in wet weather, and some varieties, like Early 
Orleans, are very subject to this defect. All the 
choicest varieties for dessert should be gathered with 
the utmost care, and just before they are fully ripe, 
which also applies to most stone fruits, as Cherries, 
Apricots, and Peaches. Plums for preserving on a large 
scale are sometimes gathered when not more than half 
ripe and partly coloured. This is particularly the case 
with the Pershore Plum, of which many tons are sent 
from Worcestershire to jam-makers in various districts, 
in a state that the inexperienced would consider much 
too unripe for the purpose. 

Pears in most cases have to be gathered considerably 
before they are fully ripe, in fact, many profitable 
market Pears would be useless for sale if left to ripen 
on the trees. There is one great advantage about these 
fruits, and that is, provided they are not gathered too 
early, their best qualities of flavour and aroma are 
developed almost as well as when on the trees. The 
large consignments of Pears from France and California 
prove the truth of this statement, for all of these, but 
especially those from America, are gathered considerably 
in advance of their ripening period. By growing the 



68 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



right varieties, by careful selection, and by the best 
packing, good prices are realised in our markets for 
excellent fruits. The utmost care is needed in gathering 
Pears that have to be packed or kept for some time 
before they are exposed for sale, as the slightest bruise is 
soon developed either into an objectionable spot, or the 
still more disastrous commencement of decay. Varieties 
employed for cooking purposes are not so easily 
damaged in the gathering or in transit, but they are 
worthy of the little trouble involved in the avoidance of 
bruises. They can be taken from the trees at any time 
when fully developed. 

Apples constitute an important crop, covering a long 
season of supply, and the varieties equally meet the two 
great divisions of popular demand, namely, for cooking 
and eating. Every preceding remark concerning care 
in the gathering applies to these fruits with equal force, 
but, unfortunately, this essential attention is frequently 
neglected, or such quantities of damaged fruits would 
not be seen in the British markets from home growers. 
All early Apples should be gathered as soon as they 
have reached their average size and the eating varieties 
are coloured. But well-developed samples are needed 
for cooking purposes, and though, if supplies are short, 
growers often gather their earliest fruits when little 
more than half their full size, it is a question if much is 
gained by the practice unless the prices are exceedingly 
high. If the object is to relieve young trees of their 
crop in order that good growth may be made, it is 
another matter, and the course is a wise one to take. 
When also such varieties as Lord Grosvenor set a large 
number of fruits that are too thickly placed on the 
branches to develop properly, thinning becomes 
necessary, and the fruits thus removed are often saleable, 
if not too small, while those left on the trees will 
advance rapidly to good size. 



PREPARING PRODUCE FOR SALE 69 



Colour is so great a help in the sale of dessert Apples, 
that the fruits should always be left as long as possible 
to acquire this character. Most of the earliest varieties 
need to be gathered quickly, as they soon deteriorate in 
quality, becoming " dry," "woolly," or flavourless, if 
too far advanced. The mid-season and late varieties 
can be gathered well before they are at their best, if of 
full size, as they often improve greatly in flavour, and 
even in colour, if they are stored or packed under the 
right conditions. The best varieties of Apples, well 
grown, give good returns for every attention paid to 
them in the gathering, and other details preparatory 
for sale. 

Similar general principles apply to fruits grown under 
glass, such as Grapes, Peaches, Nectarines, Figs, and 
Melons, as well as to Tomatoes and Cucumbers ; all must 
be gathered somewhat in advance of their final stage if 
they have to be conveyed a distance to the selling centre. 
But they must not be taken before certain essential 
characters are developed ; thus, with all Grapes, the 
possession of a dense "bloom" is all-important, and 
adds materially to the value of the best samples ; large 
berries are also of substantial value, together with fresh- 
ness, and as near an approach to ripeness as is consistent 
with safe carriage. 

In Peaches and Nectarines, size and colour carry 
money value, but the fruits must on no account -be dead 
ripe, or they will be useless for sale. Figs, too, are very 
perishable, and must be picked immediately they are 
full-grown. Melons require careful judgment to get 
them in the right condition, for they should be well 
coloured, yet if gathered a few hours too late they may be 
almost rotten by the time they are cut on the consumer's 
table. They are better removed from the plants as they 
reach full size, and marketed in succession, as they do 
not all mature at the same time. With Tomatoes, colour 



7o THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



is of urgent importance, and the grower has to secure 
this with the requisite size, and yet avoid that degree 
of ripeness when the fruits become soft to the touch. 
Moderately firm, brightly-coloured, even-shaped, and 
medium-sized fruits are those which pay the tomato 
grower best, and he must select the time of gathering in 
accordance with these characters. 

Cucumbers of the dark-skinned type should have a 
good " bloom " on the surface when gathered, but with 
the lighter green forms of the Telegraph type the points 
are full average size and even shape, which also apply 
to the others as well. In any case a Cucumber should 
be really green, not yellow or blanched, it must be 
quickly grown, and as fresh as possible. 

Whenever fruits are not gathered direct into the 
baskets or boxes in which they are to be sent to market, 
special baskets should be provided for the purpose. 
The most convenient form is that with a handle over 
the centre, so that it can be readily carried or suspended 
as required. It should be shallow, the depth depending 
upon the kind of fruit and its size ; the bottom and sides 
should be well padded with some elastic material, which 
must be covered with a substance having a smooth sur- 
face, so that the fruits placed in it may not be rubbed ; 
it should be readily removable for cleaning as necessary. 
In dealing with all the choicest and most tender fruits 
this trouble is well repaid, especially when crops are 
short and prices high. 

Flowers grown for cutting all require to be gathered 
before they are fully expanded, and many are best cut 
when in the bud stage, or, in any case, when they are 
not more than half open. If properly shaded from the 
sun, and transferred at once to a cool, rather dark shed, 
or one with a northern aspect, the stems being placed in 
vessels of water, most flowers will keep well for some 
hours, and be in excellent condition for packing even 



PREPARING PRODUCE FOR SALE 71 



in the hottest weather. The advantage of gathering 
flowers in early morning or late evening, as already 
pointed out, must be borne in mind, for the main object 
should be to secure them in as fresh a condition as 
possible, and to keep them so until they reach the 
buyers. For delicate floral structures the shortest 
period is a severe trial, even under the best of cir- 
cumstances, during the summer months. The lasting 
qualities of flowers vary greatly in different kinds and 
in varieties of the same species, a character which is 
well exemplified in Roses, some of the most beautiful 
of which are so fugacious that they cannot be included 
in the market grower's list. The least durable of those 
cultivated are gathered in a proportionately early stage, 
and this enables the sender to have a quantity ready 
about the same time in an equal state. With many 
flowers that are gathered early in their development, it 
may sometimes be feared that they will not all be 
sufficiently opened, and to avoid this the stalks can be 
placed in tepid water for a time, which assists the ex- 
pansion greatly. In dull, cool, or damp weather, flowers 
can be gathered and kept with little trouble, though it 
is necessary to avoid packing them in a wet state, 
especially some in which decay commences quickly. 
Wallflowers, for instance, in tight bunches packed 
closely, will often turn out with an offensive smell if 
very wet when gathered. If flowers are wet .at the 
time they are cut, they should be placed loosely in 
small bunches in the packing-shed, so that excessive 
moisture may drain off or be evaporated from the 
petals. Full or double flowers like Roses, Chrysan- 
themums, Dahlias, Carnations, the double forms of 
Narcissi and Daffodils, retain a good deal of water 
amongst their petals and florets, but the greater part 
is easily shaken out if the blooms are young and 
firm. 



72 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



Flowers forced under glass, usually in a humid 
atmosphere, wilt very quickly if unduly exposed after 
gathering. As a rule they are better packed as soon 
as possible without removal to a shed where the air is dry 
and cold. When early forcing is conducted on an ex- 
tensive scale, including bulbs, shrubs, and other plants 
which are subjected to high temperature, special pro- 
vision in the shape of heated packing sheds will be 
necessary, but even then it is not safe to expose the 
flowers long before preparing them for market. 

Some flowers are apt to lose their petals, or the whole 
corolla, very soon after gathering ; and for all those 
of special value gumming becomes essential before they 
are packed. This is an operation which requires some 
practice to perform efficiently without rendering the 
work conspicuous or disfiguring to the flowers. Where 
there are many petals it is more difficult to carry out 
thoroughly and quickly than when these are united into 
one corolla, as the object is to secure the petals to the 
calyx, and one drop of gum properly applied will 
usually effect the desired purpose in the latter case, 
though several may be needed for the many-petalled 
flowers. Where numbers of flowers have to be pre- 
pared in this way it is a tedious process, but experience 
soon teaches the quickest and best method of applying 
the gum. In some cases it is more efficient if dropped 
inside the flower at the base, and a skilled hand will 
make one application suffice, or it may be needful to 
gum both inside and outside the corolla. A small 
machine oil-can with a long fine tube in which the 
emission of gum can be regulated by the thumb at 
the base is useful, and a serviceable gum can be readily 
prepared from powdered shellac dissolved in spirits 
of wine, sufficient of the former being used to obtain 
the requisite adhesive power, but not too much to 
prevent it running freely from the can. Several ex- 



PREPARING PRODUCE FOR SALE 73 



cellent forms of gum are also prepared by dealers in 
florists' sundries, and can be obtained cheaply when 
the trouble of home manufacture is not desired. 

The wiring which is now so general in floral work 
is usually left to the retail florist, and would not require 
attention in a market business unless a retail trade is 
also conducted. 

Flowers are cut with long stems wherever practicable, 
that is in every case where this can be done without 
taking an undue portion of the producing plant, but it is 
advisable to avoid cutting into hard growth if possible, 
though with forced shrubs and other woody plants that 
cannot be helped. Where the flowers are borne in 
clusters, but are mostly employed singly in floral arrange- 
ment, as with Stephanotis and Tuberoses for example, 
long stems are not required, because the flowers are 
wired individually after removal from the cluster. If 
cut with fresh soft growth only attached, the majority of 
flowers absorb water more readily through their stems, 
and in consequence retain their freshness better or can 
be more quickly revived. 



GRADING FOR PROFIT 



Packages and Materials 

The full significance of the term " grading," and the 
advantages derivable from its consistent practice in a 
methodical manner, are still unrecognised by many pro- 
ducers who otherwise manifest much ability in the con- 
duct of their business. Yet all our competitors in other 
lands who export largely to this country are alive to the 
importance of grading, and they secure a material share 
of their profits by the keen attention devoted to the 
subject. Why neglect should prevail here it is difficult 
to understand or explain, for if the labour required can 
be supplied in addition to the freightage of thousands of 
miles' carriage over sea and land, besides all salesmen's 
charges, it ought to be possible to obtain a margin of 
profit close to the home markets. Where this is not 
done it is through some lack of judgment or from the 
work being performed in an imperfect manner. We 
have never known an instance where a crop was of un- 
even quality that sorting into two or even three grades 
did not yield a better total result in money return than 
if all were marketed together without separation. Im- 
perfectly carried out, any attempts at sorting are certainly 
wasted labour, but there is no substantial reason why it 
should be done in this manner ; wilful neglect and 
ignorance of simple matters ought to have no place in 
present day businesses. 

Grading can be most effectually practised with fruits, 
and if carried out in a systematic manner the expense is 

74 



GRADING FOR PROFIT 75 



so small that any gain in advanced prices for the produce 
must show a profit to the grower. The simplest form 
it can assume is the exclusion of defective, damaged, or 
small samples, which can be effected at the time of 
gathering. It commonly happens that a small proportion 
of such fruits included with the better ones lowers the 
value of a consignment very seriously, as growers would 
realise more generally if they sometimes took the place 
of buyers in the markets. Even though the excluded 
specimens are unsaleable, the gain is yet on the side of 
the grader, unless the whole crop is bad in quality. If 
there are any good fruits, they are worth separating 
from the inferior ones, and a special outlet may be found 
for the poorer samples if they will not pay for carriage 
to a market, and they seldom will do so. However even 
and good a crop may be, it is nearly always possible to 
make two grades, the first and second quality, and in 
many cases three can be separated with advantage. This 
is especially the case with Apples, which show consider- 
able range in their degrees of merit. 

It is not only size which has to be regarded in grading, 
but colour also demands its share of attention. Medium- 
sized fruits, highly coloured, will often rank before larger 
samples that are deficient in the latter character. But 
if the qualities are well balanced, the larger fruits as a 
rule will command the higher prices within certain 
limits. No hard and fast rules can be laid down for 
guidance in the selection, as the standard will not only 
differ in distinct varieties, but in other plantations or even 
on other trees in the same orchard, as well as in different 
seasons. The chief points to be observed are that there 
should be a well-marked difference between the grades, 
and that each should be uniform in itself. These are 
very important, however, and apply to all garden pro- 
duce that may be subjected to the process of grading for 
markets. 



76 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



Pears, Plums, Cherries, Peaches, Strawberries, Rasp- 
berries, Gooseberries, Currants, Grapes, Figs, Tomatoes, 
and Cucumbers all admit of grading if only in two 
qualities ; while the majority of vegetables, particularly 
those producing pods, or roots and tubers, can be 
similarly sorted with equal profit. Though the bulk of 
a sample is reduced by the removal of the second and 
third-rate produce, it often happens that the returns are 
increased in all grades by the course taken. The selling 
value of a mixed sample is based upon the inferior 
specimens it contains, and not upon the best ; besides, 
when in contrast with finer fruits or vegetables in one 
box or basket the poorer samples are seen to the worst 
advantage and do not command the price they would do 
when constituting a separate grade. 

The Board of Agriculture now issues a weekly return 
of market prices of farm and garden produce, and in this 
actual selling prices of the latter are given for nine markets 
— namely, London, Bristol, Evesham, Birmingham,Wolver- 
hampton, Leeds, Manchester, Liverpool, and Glasgow. 
Fruits and vegetables are included in these returns, the 
leading varieties of apples, pears, and potatoes being named 
separately. The prices are given for two qualities in 
nearly every case, and a comparison of these returns 
affords some interesting facts with regard to the quality 
range of prices for the same varieties, in the same markets, 
at similar periods. In few cases is the difference between 
first and second less than 20 per cent, increase on the 
lower value ; in many it varies from 30 to 50 per cent., 
and in some instances it is even loo per cent. Of course 
these do not represent grades of one crop or from one 
grower, and it is probable that some of those sales are 
recorded concerning consignments that have never been 
sorted at all, but they serve to illustrate the subject here 
referred to, namely, the variation in price that is caused 
by differences in quality. 



GRADING FOR PROFIT 77 



Beyond what sorting can be done at the time of 
gathering fruits for immediate sale, there will always 
be much in a large establishment that will require a 
special arrangement for the work of grading. For 
apples a few large growers and dealers have adopted 
a machine that is constructed to carry out the grading 
with great rapidity and with sufficient thoroughness for 
all such crops in bulk, except perhaps the choicest and 
ripest samples. One large fruit-merchant speaks favour- 
ably of the machine, its work, and the cost ; but if really 
efficient it could only be pecuniarily satisfactory where 
the supplies are both extensive and continuous over a 
long period. Such appliances are therefore better suited 
for the dealer or salesman than for the grower, who 
rarely in this country has such enormous crops as would 
render their employment necessary or profitable. 

Packing sheds of the best type, light and spacious, 
with central tables upon which the fruits can be turned 
out for the sorting, are in consequence best adapted to 
the requirements of the majority of home growers. 
Sheds are a necessity, and the provision of the additional 
convenience for fruit-grading is a comparatively small 
matter. Ordinary long wooden tables of the simplest 
construction, cheap but strong, can be easily adapted to 
the purpose by fitting them with rims to prevent the 
fruits rolling off. Large trays that can be moved about 
as required are also very convenient, as no alteration 
of the tables is then needed, and they can be stored 
away when the sorting season is over. They should 
be higher at the back than the front, the bottom also 
sloping slightly in the same way ; they may be any 
width, provided they are not too heavy ; but the depth 
(from back to front) must be regulated to the grader's 
work, 3 feet in depth being the maximum, and in an 
ordinary way about 2 feet to i\ feet is the most service- 
able for fruit generally. The construction of such trays 



78 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



is so simple that any handy man can do the work on the 
premises under direction without having to call in the 
services of a carpenter. 

In all grading, where the fruit is brought into a shed 
and turned out on tables or trays, it is obvious that the 
additional handling required for the sorting and packing 
will subject the fruit to more risk of injury ; therefore 
the greatest care must be exercised, and the closest 
supervision given, to ensure that such damage is re- 
duced to the lowest point. The men or women 
entrusted with the task must be selected with judg- 
ment, and suitable encouragement given to those who 
devote the best thought to their work combined with 
the needful quickness. Some special fitness is essential, 
and those who take an interest in it can soon be trained 
to sort with all the accuracy and care desired. 

As a matter of precaution, the surface of the trays 
or tables may be covered with a soft material to lessen 
the danger of bruising, but it should have a smooth 
surface, not one that is likely to rub the fruits or leave 
any lint upon them. It must, further, be affixed in such 
a manner that it can be readily removed, for if fruits are 
damp, or they have, as with some varieties of apples, a 
" greasy" skin, the surface is soon clogged, only serving 
to smudge and spoil other fruits. It should also be of 
a washable character, so that it can be replaced when 
cleansed. 

The same principles of sorting apply to flowers as to 
fruits and vegetables, namely, first, the separation of 
different grades, and second keeping each grade as uniform 
in quality as possible. It often happens that it is not 
necessary to send the different grades to the same 
market : the man who knows the character of the 
demand at different centres can regulate matters accord- 
ingly : what would rank as second-rate in one market 
may take first place in another. It is the same when 



GRADING FOR PROFIT 79 



supplying direct to the consumer : one desires the best 
of its kind that can be procured, and is prepared to pay 
any reasonable price ; another requires a cheap article, 
and is not so concerned about high quality provided he 
is not offered a lot of rubbish. Grading enables the 
producer to meet both classes : he pleases his customers, 
utilises his goods to the best advantage, and conducts 
his business upon a firm and satisfactory basis. It is 
both honest and economical, and no one can give the 
matter a fair and thorough trial without being convinced, 
as we have long been from extended practical experi- 
ence, that judicious grading is one of the essentials of 
successful market gardening which demands the attention 
of every up-to-date grower. 

Packing Garden Produce 

Market growers who are situated within a short road 
distance of the centres they supply are in a position to 
cart the greater portion of their produce without the 
expenditure of much labour upon packing. But the 
number so placed, and who can depend upon the local 
demands to absorb all they grow, are comparatively 
small : the majority have to look far and wide for their 
markets ; due protection for their produce in transit 
consequently requires the best attention. For all the 
choicer fruits, flowers, and vegetables, the ordeal is a 
severe one : first, there is the journey by road to the 
station, which in some districts is alone a great trial, 
the removal to trucks or waggons, and a period of some 
hours in the train, with the added joltings of sundry 
shunting operations ; the transference at the terminal 
station again to carts or vans, the unloading at the 
market, and the final loading into the retail fruiterer's or 
greengrocer's conveyances. It is astonishing that after 
going through such a process of " preparation " for the 



8o THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



consumer, tender fruits are fit to look at or to eat when 
they reach their journey's end, yet a large proportion of 
British garden produce has to go through this pro- 
gramme as a regular part of the business that is to some 
extent unavoidable under present conditions. Ought it 
to be necessary to point out that the utmost care in 
packing is an absolute essential if the grower expects 
his goods to arrive in even decent condition ? It seems 
almost like insulting the intelligence of practical men to 
question the matter at all, yet a visit to any of the 
markets when the consignments are opened is a revela- 
tion, and would supply an answer, unexpected but true, 
namely, that packing is much too frequently and too 
generally neglected. 

In conjunction with a cumbrous and antiquated system 
of marketing, this neglect is one of the causes of low 
prices and the resulting dissatisfaction, with disputes 
between sender and salesman. It is a defect that can 
be removed or at least greatly reduced, and it should 
no more be tolerated in a market garden business than 
it would be in any other where goods of a less perishable 
character are dealt with. What is the use in giving the 
best skill to cultivation if every effort is to be heavily 
discounted at the last by the neglect of so simple a 
matter as packing, with due regard to providing for 
safe arrival at the journey's end ? 

Baskets. — By far the major part of home-grown fruits and 
vegetables is conveyed to market in baskets, and though 
some of these are of awkward shapes or sizes, and by no 
means up to date as regards general convenience, yet for 
many crops there are several points in their favour. 
When well made they are strong and durable ; in pro- 
portion to their size the best are light, and therefore do 
not add much to the cost of carriage ; while the 
ventilation provided is beneficial to some crops conveyed 
in bulk. Taking the durability into consideration, a 



\ 



GRADING FOR PROFIT 81 



properly constructed basket is also cheap, though the 
first outlay is considerable if they have to be purchased. 
So great indeed is the expense that many have been led to 
shirk it by using the cheapest productions, often irregular 
in size, and easily damaged, with proportionate risk to the 
contents. Recognising this, the largest salesmen and 
dealers have endeavoured to ensure something like 
uniformity in the packages of their numerous clients by 
providing baskets for all who consign goods to them in 
sufficient quantity. The only expense to the grower 
is usually the payment of the railway charges on the 
empties, a very small matter, though there is a heavy 
surcharge for lost or damaged baskets. 

Established market gardeners who have land available 
for the purpose adopt a more satisfactory method : they 
grow the willows and make their own baskets on the 
premises. One grower who has several hundred acres 
under close cultivation, with fruits and vegetables, has 
employed three basket-makers continuously for some 
years ; but he also acts as salesman for other smaller 
growers, and further his baskets have attained some 
reputation, and when he has a surplus stock they are 
readily sold at remunerative prices. The land where the 
Willows and Osiers are grown is not adapted for any other 
purpose in its present state, and the cost of draining to 
bring it under ordinary cultivation would be heavy. 
Many who are similarly situated might well adopt this 
plan, as if care is taken in the selection of the right 
varieties of Willows there is always sufficient demand for 
good stock to ensure a ready and profitable sale. A 
leaflet issued by the Board of Agriculture (No. 36) gives 
some valuable information upon this point. 

The form of basket most generally in use is the 
round type of various dimensions as the bushel or " sieve" 
and some modification like the half-bushel, the half-sieve, 
and the peck. These are made with stout rims and the 



82 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



bottom raised in the centre, so that they can be placed 
one upon another when filled ; but all produce packed 
in them requires to be covered with some protective 
material on the surface. Even with this care, however, 
the top layers are liable to injury, as with all lidless 
baskets where the contents are packed above the rim. 
There is also an unfortunate tendency to " top-dress " in 
packing such baskets, i.e. surfacing with better samples 
than the bulk. This is a species of dishonesty which is 
apt to recoil upon the packer, for if the upper layer 
becomes damaged or disturbed the difference is at once 
observed, and the value is lowered proportionately, 
besides doing a lasting injury to the grower's reputation. 
Except for the coarsest, hardest fruits, or the least 
delicate vegetables, these open baskets are objectionable 
in several ways ; but it is difficult to convince those who 
are accustomed to using them that they are faulty. Such 
baskets have been employed by the growers in the 
London district for many years, and it is only in a few cases 
where improved forms or other modes of packing have 
been substituted. Yet even when a good covering is 
provided, the contents of such baskets are very in^ 
adequately protected from either damage or loss ; and 
though the material used is of insignificant value in small 
quantities, in large establishments it becomes a consider- 
able item, in addition to the labour of application. 
Occasionally sheets of old newspaper are thought 
sufficient, with the result that three parts are torn off 
before the market is reached, both labour and material 
being wasted. Again, some will dispense with all 
covering, and we have seen large consignments of ripe 
strawberries, raspberries, plums, and gooseberries for- 
warded in open pecks or half-sieves on a long road and 
rail journey, exposed to dust and contamination of all 
kinds, to be converted into "choice" preserves when 
they arrived at their destination, some twelve hours after 
they left the ground. 





Patent Folding Wooden Crates for Fruit and Vegetables, 

To hold \ bushel to \ \ bushel. 
(The British Basket Co., Ltd., Crownpoint Street, Glasgow.) 

counties, namely the pot, though it is rarely seen in the 
Metropolitan counties. It is a tall square basket, and is 
usually supplied with handles at the ends; it is strongly 
made, very durable, and convenient for removing produce 



84 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



on the ground. For hard unripe fruits, and rough 
heavy vegetables it is to some extent suitable, but for 
anything that is ripe or tender it possesses all the 
objections of the round baskets, with some others 
specially appertaining to itself. The full size pot, which 
is that chiefly employed, holds 72 lbs. of plums, and 
when these are approaching ripeness the pressure 
upon the lower layers is enough to damage any soft 
fruit. In one district alone, between Evesham and 
Pershore, in some seasons hundreds of tons are despatched 
by train in this manner. But the pot is used for all 
kinds of garden produce besides plums, and though it is 
well fitted for crops like Peas, Beans, early Potatoes, 
Brussels Sprouts, and herbs, it is also employed for 
Cauliflowers or Cabbages, together with flowers such as 
Wallflowers, Pinks, and Daffodils. With regard to the 
flowers the weight is out of proportion to the value of 
the contents, and thus expenses are increased unneces- 
sarily ; while for Cabbages the space is too small, and the 
result is they are crowded in so tightly that they are 
much broken and damaged. A smaller size termed a half- 
pot is free from some of the bad features of the large 
one, but it is seldom used to the same extent. Both 
are, of course, without lids, and the contents must either 
be covered as with the round baskets, or left open to 
the weather and the dust. Locally, these baskets have 
been in use so long and so generally, that it would be 
difficult to introduce any other form, and objections 
raised against them are regarded as due to strangers' 
prejudice, though a few of the leading growers are 
substituting smaller baskets for choice fruits. 

Increasing favour is being extended to flat square 
baskets furnished with lids, which can be had in various 
sizes from most of the larger makers. They are adapted 
for all garden produce except flowers ; they are more 
readily packed than the round baskets, and can be stacked 



GRADING FOR PROFIT 85 



on the top of each other without injuring the contents. 
Against them it is urged, first, that they are expensive ; 
secondly, that the larger sizes are not so strong as the 
round baskets, and they are therefore more liable to 
damage ; thirdly, that in rough market usage the lids 
are apt to be separated and lost. The cost can be 
reduced by ordering large quantities at a time, and well 
in advance of the season when they will be needed ; or 
a still greater reduction can be effected if the baskets 
are made on the growers' premises from home-grown 
willows. Sufficient strength can be ensured in the 
manufacture if the defects are duly pointed out, and the 
lids may be firmly secured with cane hinges (or even 
with wire), so that the risk of loss is very small. We 
have tried flat baskets of the kind described for some 
years, in comparison with open ones of the round or 
square types, and greatly prefer them for most produce 
where it is advisable to employ baskets. 

Handle baskets with lids that slip over the handle are 
now much used for grapes, tomatoes, choice plums, and 
other fruits of value ; but they are rather expensive, 
being well made of the best white willow, and they must, 
therefore, be always booked or charged when sent. 
They are both neat and convenient, and help the sale 
of produce by their appearance. The same may be said 
of the so-called " baby baskets," used for the best home- 
grown grapes, as in these shallow tray-like forms the 
fruit is seen to the best advantage when well packed 
and secured ; the bunches can also be placed in the 
fruiterer's windows without handling until sold to the 
consumer. 

Crates are largely used in the southern markets for 
Cabbages, Cauliflowers, Kale, and similar vegetables: they 
are from 3 to 4 feet high, of varying width, tapering 
somewhat to the base, as lightly constructed as possible 
consistent with the requisite strength. They should 



86 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



contain at least five dozen of the first named, which con- 
stitute the " Tally " of the London markets. 

' ' Chip" baskets of moderate size are in considerable 
demand, and being cheap are useful for soft fruits like 
strawberries in quantities of 4 to 6 lbs. Chip punnets of 

various forms and 
sizes are also em- 
ployed extensively 
for choice ripe 
fruits : they may 
be had in sizes to 
take from half a 
pound to 2 lbs. of 
strawberries, but 
the I lb. size is 
most in demand, 
either shallow or 
deep. These are 
also used for small 
or "Button" 
Mushrooms ex- 
tensively. 

Boxes. — Contin- 
ental, American, 
and Colonial ex- 
porters of fruits 
have employed 
boxes for many 
years, but the use 
packages has advanced very slowly in Great 
until quite recently. Some growers have re- 




Parcel Post Boxes. Cardboard. 



of such 
Britain 

cognised the advantages attendant upon the use of boxes, 
provided these could be non-returnable. The chief 
difficulty has been to produce a box sufficiently strong 
to convey the contents safely, and yet cheap enough to 
include in the price without materially decreasing the 



GRADING FOR PROFIT 87 



growers' profits. That this can be done has been 
abundantly demonstrated, more especially for fruits in 
small quantities ; but they are also admirably adapted 
for flowers, and the lighter vegetables or salads. A 
wonderful business has been developed in direct com- 
munication between the producer and consumer in some 
districts, notably around Wisbech, mainly by the 
assistance rendered at starting by the Great Eastern 
Railway Company. Boxes of various sizes are provided 
at moderate prices, and the Company at first undertook 
to collect these when packed with farm and garden 
produce, as well as to convey or deliver them at an 
inclusive rate from all stations on the line to London, re- 
gardless of distance but dependent upon weight. Other 
companies have followed the lead, and provide boxes of 
similar size, the following being those most in demand 
with the prices : — 



Pri( 



No. I, 

„ 2, 

» 3> 

» 4> 

„ 5, 

>> 6, 



Inches, Inches, Inches, 
length. width. depth. 

iof X 7j X 3 = 2d. each. 



*3 

i5i 
i6f 

m 



x 9 
x iof 

X llh 
XI3" 



21} x 14 



4i = 2jd. , 

5 = 3d. , 

5i = 3H , 

6 = 4^d. , 

7 - 5|d. , 



These boxes are intended for use once only, and the 
following conditions are attached, viz. — 

"That the boxes be secured by nails, not by rope or 
cord." 

" That the produce be conveyed at owner's risk, and 
the carriage prepaid." 

" That no box shall be of greater weight than 60 lbs." 

The charge is 4d. for 20 lbs. and id. for every 5 lbs. 
up to 60 lbs., including delivery within the usual limits, 
but the collection is not undertaken now. 



88 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



We have used these boxes extensively Jfor some years, 
and have proved them to be very satisfactory, the 
smaller sizes for fruits, and the larger ones for flowers 
or light vegetables of a choice character. The stipula- 
tion that nails only shall be employed is objectionable, 
and we have not found that the companies are very 
strict about enforcing the regulation, provided the lids 
are nailed on (and this is necessary); but tying with 
stout string also is a protection that has proved 
advisable. Nos. I and 2 are the least liable to be 
damaged, being comparatively stronger than the others, 
and when the produce is well packed they can be safely 
sent long distances, provided ordinary care be exercised 
by the railway servants. 

Numerous firms of box-makers throughout the country 
make a special feature of their business in the production 
of boxes for farmers and market gardeners, so that such 
packages can be obtained in any desired size and strength 
at moderate prices. But where the amount of produce 
is very large growers have found it profitable to make 
their own boxes, either by employing men in wet time 
and during the winter months, or by utilising some of 
the up-to-date machinery constructed for box-making. 
Much can be said in favour of the former method, as 
there is nothing elaborate in the construction of the 
boxes usually required. Any intelligent handy man can 
soon master the few details, and it is a great advantage 
both to employer and man to have regular work avail- 
able at all bad times. This, of course, especially applies 
where the crops are chiefly grown in the open ground ; 
when there is a large area under glass the labour is not 
affected to the same extent by weather conditions, and 
the employment of machinery is then advisable if it can 
be kept in use sufficiently. Excellent and ingenious 
machines are now sold by several firms, which can turn 
out large numbers of well-made boxes in a few hours. 



GRADING FOR PROFIT 89 



In districts where there are numbers of small growers, a 
larger producer would find a sale for a considerable pro- 
portion of the boxes he could turn out beyond his own 
requirements, provided they were cheap enough. In 
such a case the outlay upon machinery would be a safe 
investment, and might prove a substantial aid to his 
business if judiciously worked. 

The essentials in the production of boxes that are to 
be of real service to market growers are as follows : — 

1. They must be as light as possible consistent with 
a reasonable strength ; it is useless to rely upon flimsy 
makes — they will only result in endless trouble and re- 
peated loss of goods. On the other hand, if heavy thick 
wood is employed, the weight will be prohibitive. 

2. The cost must be low, and in proportion to the 
value and quality of the produce they are to convey, 
especially if they are to be non-returnable. For instance, 
it would be folly to give a box costing sixpence with 
goods that are only worth one shilling. When boxes 
are to be returned, and are made stronger to fit them 
for an average number of journeys, the larger cost per 
box amounts to much less per journey, provided the 
empties do not have to be returned singly. We have 
used home-made, strong half-bushel and smaller size 
boxes, the actual cost of which, including return in bulk, 
did not average one penny per journey. It is obvious 
that in such cases the relative value of the produce is of 
less consequence than when the box is used once 
only. 

3. Boxes should be made the means of advertising 
the grower, and they should therefore be labelled or 
branded with his name, and preferably also with the 
name of the place, and of the variety (when fruit is sent 
in them), as well as the quality or grade. 

4. If the boxes are returnable the lids should be 
secured with strong hinges, as their loss is a frequent 



9 o THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



source of annoyance and expense ; when non-returnable 
this is not important. 

Convenient as boxes unquestionably are, and much as 
there is in their favour, they must be mainly relied upon 
for direct conveyance to consumers or retailers, at all 
events for the present. Salesmen in general have a 
prejudice against dealing with British garden produce in 
boxes, although so large a part of their business is 
founded upon imported fruits in similar packages. We 
have repeatedly endeavoured to induce salesmen to take 
first-class fruits in boxes and have always been met with 
objections. If they have taken them it has been almost 
under protest, and with a " don't blame me for results" 
kind of expression that has not been encouraging. Not- 
withstanding this, however, when genuine efforts have 
been made to give them a fair trial, well-selected, graded 
fruits have yielded much better returns than similar fruits 
sent in baskets in the ordinary way, and that is what 
concerns the grower. One experienced salesman in a 
northern market assured us that he has had to turn pro- 
duce out of boxes into baskets to enable him to secure a 
sale for fruits as British grown. He says the custom is 
so general, and so firmly established, to regard fruits in 
boxes as of foreign origin, that he failed to convince 
his customers to the contrary. There is no reason why 
such prejudice should prevail, and properly branding the 
boxes would remove the difficulty. We have abundant 
proof that the demand for boxes is extending, and if 
salesmen do not awaken to the fact they will find that 
increased facilities for direct communication with the 
consumers, and the development of co-operation amongst 
producers, will eventually deprive them of part of their 
business. 

Card-board boxes of excellent design are now manu- 
factured in great numbers for art flowers and florists' 
productions; they are light and strong, being well 



GRADING FOR PROFIT 



adapted for parcel-post trade, in which they are ex- 
tensively employed. These are sold at such a cheap rate 
that it is scarcely worth while to make them at home, 
still machines are now available that render the task an 
easy and expeditious one. They can be had stamped 
with the trader's name and address and an indication of 
the nature of the contents. Much improvement has been 
effected in these boxes of recent years ; the insides are 
covered with a smooth, non-porous lining which aids 
materially in preserving flavours in a fresh state after 
they are packed. 

Thin metal boxes have also been advocated for similar 
produce, but while they offer some advantages in the 
preservation of flowers or fruits in transit they have 
several objectionable features, notably the weight and the 
liability to damage ; besides this, in proportion to their 
size they are expensive. Such boxes with partitions to 
enclose special fruits like peaches have not proved 
satisfactory in general business, though they are some- 
times used privately. A method adopted by some of the 
Californian growers for the conveyance of plums to this 
country consists in having small metal boxes which fit 
into larger shallow wooden cases, and it appears to offer 
some advantages, as the fruits are not in bulk, and the 
effects of one or two damaged fruits are confined to a 
small area. 

Barrels, though chiefly used by American and Canadian 
fruit growers for apples, are not likely to be generally 
employed in that way here. They are occasionally used 
for roots such as Potatoes, Turnips, Carrots, and Horse- 
radish, but only for inferior grades of the second and 
third named, as the best are bunched. Tubs of smaller 
size are employed for later gatherings of soft fruits that 
will not pay for sorting, and which are conveyed direct 
to jam-makers for conversion into pulp. This is often 
only an excuse for disposing of a quantity of damaged 



92 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



fruit, and it must be remembered that the closest 
supervision is exercised in jam-factories as regards the 
quality of such consignments, and prompt destruction 
follows upon condemnation. 

Sacks and bags of varied sizes and materials have 
many uses ; they are manufactured in enormous quantities, 
and can be bought cheaply on a large scale from the 




(Osman & Co.) (Osman & Co.) 



Chip Punnets for Fruits. 

makers. But the smaller, lighter bags may be profitably 
made as winter or bad-weather work in many establish- 
ments of moderate extent. "We have tested this matter 
and found it to answer well, taking into account the 
utilisation of labour that would either be unprofitably 
employed or stopped entirely. In my gold-medal essay 
on packing fruit and vegetables for small holders the 
details of sizes, material, and methods are dealt with 
fully. If a good system is organised the work is simple 
and readily mastered, sufficiently at least for all ordinary 
purposes. Small bags for light produce are best made 
from Hessian canvas, which, if of good quality, is both 



GRADING FOR PROFIT 93 



strong and durable. A convenient width for cutting up 
is 6 feet, and this costs about 6d. a yard run, or 3d. per 
square yard. Useful bags can be made at from 2d. to 6d. 
each, according to the size, that can be employed for 
small quantities of roots or hard, unripe fruit. Bags 
should never under any circumstances be used for 
produce that is easily damaged. 

Potatoes require strong and specially made bags or 
sacks ; the former are usually formed to hold I cwt., and 
the latter cwts. or three bushels. The two-bushel 
bags are more extensively used now than formerly on 
the score of convenience, and bags of similar size are 
utilised for the heavier roots, such as turnips and carrots. 
Bags are almost exclusively employed for imported nuts, 
but generally the small sizes are preferred ; British 
grown walnuts, hazel-nuts, and filberts are marketed 
in a similar way, though they are also sent in baskets. 

Packing Materials 

An important aid to the best packing is afforded by 
the choice of the right materials, and a small quantity of 
that fitted for the work used in a judicious manner will 
do far more to effect the purpose in view than a large 
amount of a cheaper but defective substance. The only 
object in using such aids should be to ensure firmness 
in the contents of the package, and to prevent damage, 
though in the case of some produce a suitable substance 
may be rendered the means of maintaining freshness as 
well. Beyond this, too, materials of an ornamental 
character are sometimes desirable, particularly in small 
packages, for the sake of increasing their attractions to 
purchasers. What might be termed the artistic side of 
packing receives little attention amongst British growers, 
though the majority of importers to this country have 
realised its value to the fullest extent. It is sufficiently 



94 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



difficult here to induce those concerned to study the 
utilitarian side alone, namely, the due protection of 
their goods. 

An ideal packing material should possess some 
measure of elasticity, otherwise it is liable to be a 
source of trouble rather than an advantage. If there be 
a shrinkage after the package is completed the space left 
allows a movement of the contents which almost 
invariably results in some degrees of injury. It must 
be entirely free from any strong odour, or fruits 
especially are unfavourably affected ; for the same 
reason it should not be of a very perishable nature, as if 
decay commences quickly, even in an incipient degree, 
an enclosed package is rendered offensive. Substances 
that are either unduly dry and absorbent, or too 
retentive of moisture, should be avoided, as well as 
fancy products at excessive prices. Efficiency with 
reasonable economy must be the rule in this as in all 
other operations of the commercial gardener. 

Nothing at present available comes so near the ideal 
as the best forms of " wood-wool," as the extremely 
fine wood-shavings are termed, the production of which 
has become quite an industry by the aid of improved 
machinery and methods. This is obtainable in many 
different degrees of fineness and quality, and at varying 
prices, but some manufacturers have made great progress 
in recent years, providing more suitable wood and 
turning out a much better article than was the case a 
few years ago. At first it was thought wood-wool 
would never be of much real use in the horticultural 
world, owing to the strong resinous smell it possessed 
for one thing, and its coarseness for another ; but 
though these objections still apply to some of the 
common grades, they have been effectually removed 
from all the best brands. 

At one large manufactory in the east of London 



GRADING FOR PROFIT 



large quantities are produced, and we have seen thousands 
of waggon-loads of hundredweight bales despatched 
thence to many districts, for this substance is employed 
for many purposes besides packing fruits. The four 
grades in most general use vary in price from 4s. od. to 
6s. pd. per cwt., and we greatly prefer the last on 
account of its fineness, whiteness, and odourless char- 
acter. All the grades are said to be cut from white 
" pulp-wood," the lightest timber in use for the work, 
that generally employed being heavy "fire-wood" 
which affects the weight considerably. Some makers 
turn out a quantity of a very fine quality termed 
Aspen-wood-wool, which is more expensive than the 
above named but extremely light. Some which we 
have used for years has not weighed more on the 
average than 12 ozs. to I lb. per bushel. The cost and 
weight are therefore insignificant additions to any 
package, while the advantage is considerable. 

Even when the most expensive brands are employed, 
such as that which under the name of " Continental 
White Wood-wool" is sold as high as 40s. per cwt., 
the substance is so extremely light and fine that abund- 
ance is allowed for an ordinary sized package at the cost 
of Jd. An experienced fruit-growing friend in Kent 
claims to have sent over 10,000 peaches packed in this 
grade within a short period, without having one fruit 
damaged, a record that also speaks well for his judg- 
ment in gathering the fruits and his skill in packing. 
Cotton-wool or wadding is not in so much favour, as the 
wood-wool has proved more efficient in its elasticity. 
This property wadding possesses in a very small degree, 
and it is apt to become " dead" or compressed, so that 
the contents of the package are loosened, however much 
care may be exercised in the filling. When employed at 
all it should be used in the sheets as bought with the 
smooth side outwards, but as a general rule it is prefer- 



96 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



able to separate the articles packed from the wool by 
sheets of tissue paper. Apart from the defect mentioned 
it is very absorbent of moisture, and if loosened out the 
fibres readily adhere to anything with which they may 
be in direct contact. It is obtainable in two qualities, 
the grey, which is the cheaper and answers the same 
purpose but is not so pleasing in appearence ; and the 
white or bleached, which is in more request where 
cotton wool is in use for any purpose. The sheets are 
usually 1 8 inches wide, and are sold by the dozen 
yards. 

Paper-shavings, shredded paper, and similar produc- 
tions are used as packing materials to a limited extent, 
but they are chiefly employed in different colours for 
ornamental effect, and if a little taste is brought to bear 
upon the matter they are valuable aids to the sale of 
small boxes of fruits that are placed direct in the 
fruiterers' windows. The same remark applies to 
narrow margins of loose paper for small boxes, like 
those containing early cherries, apricots, etc., from Con- 
tinental growers. But as reliable packing materials all 
paper products alone are not so satisfactory as wood- 
wool. 

Moss in a dried and dyed state is chiefly used for 
ornament ; it is not an efficient packing material for most 
fruits, it is expensive, and the tinted sorts have an 
artificial appearance. Fresh, green, clean moss can be 
employed for some choice flowers to good purpose, but 
its principal use is for packing small plants turned out 
of their pots. When the soil is shaken from the roots 
to save cost in carriage damp moss is the best substance 
that can be had to prevent the plants suffering from 
evaporation in transit. This is especially the case as 
regards short journeys by post or train, for long 
distances, as with exported or imported plants it is 
found risky to enclose a quantity of damp moss. Under 



GRADING FOR PROFIT 97 



the right conditions of gathering and packing many- 
flowers travel well without such assistance. 

As an ordinary covering for open baskets various 
materials are utilised, such as straw, hay, grass, and the 
stems or haulm of the crop gathered, as Pea, Bean, and 
Potato tops. Where it is available Bracken Fern is used, 
and this with good soft straw is the most efficient of what 
may be termed " make-shift " substances. Hay is soft, 
but often smells too strong, and is expensive ; grass is 
not always available, and is objectionable in its quick 
decay ; the haulm of crops is obviously only at command 
when the supply is finished, further it is often not so 
clean as might be desired. 

Certain substances are used for packing imported 
produce that might occasionally be employed here, 
though not for the same goods. For example, Buck- 
wheat husk is extensively used for packing bulbs in 
Holland, and it serves the purpose well in preventing 
damage while at the same time being dry but non- 
absorbent. Where obtainable at a cheap rate it would 
be useful for ripened roots. Cork dust is largely used 
in packing Almeria grapes in tubs, and they travel well 
as a rule, but it is a very thick skinned variety, and the 
removal of the cork on arrival causes dealers and 
fruiterers a great amount of trouble. It is a question if 
the substance could be imported to this country cheap 
enough to be of any service for other purposes, certainly 
it should not be used for fruits. 

Paper is chiefly used in packing fruits to protect them 
from the material relied upon for safety or as a top-covering 
to exclude dust. The best forms of tissue-paper are 
well fitted for the first-named purpose and in the smaller 
boxes for the latter also. We prefer the white tissue 
for general purposes, but where ornament is an object 
it can be had in various colours, of which the pink and 
blue tinted grades are the most serviceable. A superior 



98 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



form with a very smooth surface is sold under the name 
of " Waxed tissue," and any of these kinds of paper can 
be had at particularly cheap rates by the ream of 480 
sheets. 

When it is thought desirable to surround an entire 
package with paper a different quality is needed, and 
nothing is better than some grade of brown paper 
which is sold as "wrapping." It is seldom necessary 
to take this course, however, as the small wooden and 
card-board boxes are sufficient in themselves. In the 
case of covering open baskets for protective purposes it 
is a waste of time and labour to use common thin paper, 
which is certain to be torn before a market is reached, 
as it gives the packages an untidy appearance. If the 
contents are not of sufficient value to pay for doing the 
work thoroughly, it is better to adopt some other 
method. 

Tying materials comprise a variety of substances, each 
of which has some special purpose, but the market 
gardener's principal requirements are bunching vegetables, 
salads, or flowers, tying boxes or baskets, and securing 
the tops of open baskets. In bunching vegetables, 
willow shoots, specially selected for their pliability, in 
various grades are most generally employed, and in 
some market districts it constitutes quite a business, the 
bundles being exposed for sale like other produce in 
large heaps. Varied in size and strength, they are used 
largely for Radishes, for Asparagus, and for such roots 
as Carrots and Turnips, as well as for bunched Greens 
(Coleworts). 

When boxes are tied in addition to being nailed, the 
regulations of the Railway Companies (noted on p. 87) 
must be remembered. In any case it does not apply to 
packages sent at the ordinary parcel rates at owner's 
risk. It is useless employing string or cord that is not 
sufficiently strong to ensure the safety of the boxes ; 



GRADING FOR PROFIT 99 



though on the score of cheapness, growers are often 
tempted to use samples that are quite unfit for the 
purpose. Adequate strength is the first consideration, 
after that lightness and neatness, and then the question 
of price demands attention. But on the latter point the 
careful avoidance of waste will often provide all the 
difference between a low price and a much higher one. 
Exact measurement of the length required for each 
package, and cutting this off before the work of tying 
begins, ensures an economy that amounts to a consider- 
able gain in a large business. For the small size boxes 
any ordinary stout string suffices, but for the larger 
sizes when packed with heavy fruits it is advisable to 
use cord. The best and cheapest we have tried is 
Manilla, in 2, 3, or 4 ply strengths, in proportion to what 
it is required to secure. 

Large boxes of extra strength, on which the lids are 
firmly hinged, with some form of fastening in front 
that can be relied upon to serve its purpose, may not 
need cording. It is wise in such cases to provide either 
metal or rope handles at the sides in order that the 
boxes can be readily lifted. String is also used for 
hampers to secure the lids, and sometimes to tie on the 
covering of open baskets. But for the latter, sticks are 
mostly preferred, either stout willow, split hazel, or 
some other strong and flexible wood, crossed in the 
centre and passed through the sides. 

In bunching flowers of all kinds only soft material 
that will not bruise the stems should be employed. 
Raffia stands pre-eminent for the purpose, as it is tough, 
soft, and pliable, it is also obtainable in excellent quality 
at moderate prices. A neat green-tinted material of 
similar texture termed Raffiatape has come into use for 
tying flowers to sticks more particularly ; it is incon- 
spicuous, and that is a recommendation in such work. 
Some soft kinds of string are useful for large and heavy 



L0F& 



ioo THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 

bunches of flowers, that termed " Fillis " being the sort 
we have found serviceable for several purposes. 

Large dealers in the substances named are Messrs 
Corry & Co., Ltd., Finsbury Street, E.C. ; Wood & 
Son, Wood Green, N. ; and Messrs Osman & Co., 132- 
134 Commercial Street, E. (See Illustrations.) 



\ 



METHODS OF PACKING 



Having at hand the requisite baskets or boxes, together 
with the materials it is decided to employ and the pro- 
duce to be packed, there should be little difficulty about 
the methods. Provided that sound produce only is to 
be dealt with, the main consideration is to ensure firmness 
without crushing or bruising the contents of the package. 
The whole art of successful packing is expressed in those 
few words, and the manner in which the desired result is 
attained is of comparatively little consequence. The 
fresher and better the condition of all produce at the 
time of sale, the better the price, other characters being 
equal in merit. 

Fruits 

To ensure the desired result with the higher-grade 
fruits necessitates a certain amount of careful labour and 
attention. Every fruit must be placed in position singly ; 
it is a poor practice to shoot a quantity into a box or 
basket and then shake it to ensure that all spaces are 
filled. The act itself is a source of damage to the fruit, 
and it is seldom that a firm package can be thus obtained. 
With practice and aptitude for the work, little more time 
is needed for packing fruits individually and properly than 
for the slip-shod, unsystematic styles. A comparative 
experiment or two will soon establish the money value 
of the extra care as far in advance of the additional cost 
it occasions. It must be clearly understood that these 
remarks in every case apply to the best classes of graded 

zoz 



io2 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



produce, and not to excluded or refuse fruits, which 
frequently will not pay for carriage in any form. 

The protection of fruits in boxes should be chiefly 
provided at the bottom, top, and sides, while sometimes 
it may be desirable to protect the fruits individually. 
Thus for the small size boxes that will hold a dozen 
good dessert Apples of the Cox's Orange type in a single 
layer, the bottom is covered with the finest wood-wool, 
sufficiently thick to prevent contact with the wood. 
Over this is placed a sheet of tissue-paper, cut to the 
requisite size to fold over on the top when the package 
is completed. The Apples are placed in, close together, 
and wool is added at the sides as necessary to render all 
firm another layer of wool is placed on the top over the 
paper before securing the lid, and boxes packed in this 
manner have been sent hundreds of miles without the 
slightest injury to the contents. When the fruits are 
rather smaller but highly coloured, a piece of tissue-paper, 
folded several times into a strip a little less in width than 
the height of the Apple, is wrapped round each fruit as it 
is placed in position, and this method we have always 
adopted with choice ripe Plums. Sometimes, in place of 
the tissue-paper wrapping, rather more wood-wool may 
be used, and drawn up in ridges between the rows of 
fruits ; in that case and in all others where the substance 
named is in direct contact with the fruits, it should be 
shaken quite clear of dust or small particles that might 
adhere to their surface. 

An example of the care which Californian and other 
foreign growers consider to be worth expending upon 
the best fruits is afforded by the system often adopted of 
wrapping each Plum, Pear, or other fruit in a small square 
of soft paper. This is stamped with the name of the 
grower, and occasionally with that of the variety. It 
serves as an advertisement, and while protecting the 
contents, also indicates to the buyer the character of the 



METHODS OF PACKING 103 

fruit. If a seller appears to set no value upon what he 
is offering, it is not surprising that the buyer, who may 
be quite ignorant of its real merit, places the same low 
estimate upon it. 

Shallow boxes are preferable for all choice fruits, and 
those named are best in single layers, or at most two 
layers, while ripe Peaches, Nectarines, and Apricots 
should never be in more than one layer, and even then 
need the utmost care to ensure safety. 

The deeper and larger boxes that are used for culinary 
Apples or unripe Pears and Plums are dealt with in a 
similar way as regards the protection supplied at the 
bottom, top, and sides ; but the last can sometimes be 
dispensed with if paper is employed, and close packing 
is adopted. When very fine samples are being packed, 
it is advisable to separate the layers by sheets of paper 
and a covering of wood-wool. In these and similar 
matters the packer must exercise his own judgment and 
discretion as the cases arise ; the general methods and 
the principles upon which it is advisable to work are 
what we wish to indicate. 

Ripe Strawberries can be safely packed in the smallest 
size railway boxes previously mentioned; but it is 
useless attempting to send the soft varieties in that way, 
or any fruits that are over-ripe at the time of gathering. 
Each box will hold about 3 lb. of selected fruits, and 
for these we have never used any other packing than 
strawberry leaves and the best tissue-paper. As regards 
the leaves, however, they are always specially selected 
for their softness and deep green colour, in which 
characters a few varieties excel. These are worth 
growing for their foliage alone where much Strawberry 
packing is done in punnets or small boxes. 

Near to a centre where there is a good demand for 
the best Strawberries early in the season, the most 
profitable mode of disposal is in punnets, the shallow 



1 



io 4 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



round form, holding about I lb., being usually pre- 
ferred, as showing the fruit to the best advantage. The 
square chip punnets, with or without handles, are 
convenient for packing, but as a rule they do not sell 
so readily as the others. Round punnets, neatly set off 
with leaves at the sides and well selected Strawberries 
tastefully arranged, are very tempting, and if presented 
in good form invariably bring good prices, but much 
care is required in the carriage. For this method of 
packing Strawberries, shallow trays are needed that will 
just take six punnets, but these must be made firm with 
some material at the ends or sides, as if there is much 
shaking in transit the appearance is soon spoiled. Some- 
times cases are used into which the trays are passed like 
drawers, and this offers some advantages in the direction 
of safety ; but the cases are heavy for moving about, 
and an accident means disaster to the whole consign- 
ment. 

"When punnets of ripe fruits have to be sent a long 
distance by train, the results are apt to be unsatisfactory. 
Owing to this fact there are some districts in which 
Strawberries are largely grown, but at a distance from 
populous towns, where punnets have been entirely dis- 
carded in favour of small boxes or baskets that take 
from 3 lb. to 6 lb. each. It is claimed that the net 
profits are greater in this method, taking the frequent 
losses by damage, the extra labour, and cost of carriage 
into consideration. Under such circumstances this con- 
clusion is no doubt correct, but we have increased the 
acreage return of a Strawberry crop so materially by the 
utilisation of the best early fruits for sale in punnets, 
that whenever buyers can be found within a reasonable 
distance the system is too important to be disregarded. 

In arranging Strawberries in punnets, the appearance 
is greatly improved by placing the fruits so that the 
points are in one direction, and with the bright side 



METHODS OF PACKING 105 



upwards. The berries should be as nearly equal in 
merit as possible, but the best formed and brightest 
fruits may always be used to finish off with. This is 
only a fair displaying of goods to the best advantage ; 
it is not to be confounded with the method by which a 
top layer of good fruit is employed to conceal a larger 
proportion of inferior quality. Such practices with any 
fruits or garden produce cannot be too strongly con- 
demned, not merely in the interest of the pur- 
chasers, but also in that of growers. Special details 
have been given with regard to Strawberry packing, 
because they illustrate the methods best adapted for all 
soft fruits in small quantities of high quality. Ripe 
Raspberries, when of good size and rich colour, sell 
readily in punnets, though it is usually left to the retail 
fruiterers to sort the fruit for that purpose. There is 
no reason why growers should not reap a share of the 
advantage when they are conveniently situated for doing 
a trade direct with consumers. The white or yellow 
varieties of Raspberries are well fitted for sale in punnets 
or small boxes, though the demand is more limited than 
for the red type. 

Red and White Currants look well in punnets when 
the berries and bunches are large, the colour bright in 
the former and clear in the latter. They must be fully 
ripe, and only long bunches should be used, the small 
ones and single berries, however fine, being excluded. 
This also applies to Black Currants, though they are not 
so much used for dessert purposes. 

The finest ripe Gooseberries of any colour, provided 
it be bright or clear, are sold retail in punnets, often at 
prices considerably in advance of those obtained for 
fruits of the same quality by weight or measure. Small 
or medium fruits are useless for this purpose, even 
though they may be highly flavoured. Comparatively 
few of the general public are familiar with the choice 



106 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 

varieties of Gooseberries, but all can understand a large 
ripe fruit of attractive appearance. 

The small boxes already mentioned have been utilised 
for Currants and Gooseberries, as well as for Straw- 
berries and Raspberries, with satisfactory results, pro- 
vided the fruits were 
of sufficiently good 
quality to pay for 
the trouble of pack- 
ing. The smallest 
size in use holds 
about 4 lb. of Cur- 
rants or three quarts 
of Gooseberries, and 
lining the box with 
paper is usually suffi- 
cient, making sure 

Square Willow Baby-Baskets. that the whole is firm 

(Osman & Co.) when ^ M ^ fixed 

on. Vine leaves or Strawberry leaves are useful for 
finishing off the top, and the fruits should be filled in 
evenly so that no large spaces are left, all damaged or 
over-ripe fruits being rigidly excluded. 

When forwarded in bulk, the peck baskets commonly 
employed have much in their favour ; the tops being 
contracted to form a narrow mouth, serve to protect the 
contents and are also convenient for covering with 
paper, which is tied securely round the rim. They will 
take 12 lb. of Strawberries and other small fruits, 
or about 14 lb. of Plums, and as these fruits in 
such quantity are liable to be overheated in closed 
boxes, the spaces in the wicker-work of the baskets 
provide for a degree of ventilation which keeps that in 
check. There is apt to be some irregularity in the 
size and weight of these baskets, except those from the 
best makers, and this defect often causes the sender 




METHODS OF PACKING 107 



trouble in weighing, and leads to disputes with the 
consignee or buyer. In well-made boxes the irregularity 
is so small that it can usually be disregarded. 

Cherries and Plums are packed in all of the methods 
described, but they are especially adapted for small 
boxes, and good bright fruits have an excellent appear- 
ance when well arranged, with a neat finish of white 
paper. The finest early Cherries imported from the 
Continent come in tasteful boxes and they tempt buyers, 
though the quality of the fruit as regards flavour 
leaves much to be desired. In this, as in so many other 
instances, earliness combined with good appearance is 
certain to command a market. The best later dessert 
varieties of both Cherries and Plums can well be made 
up into punnets, especially in seasons of scarcity. 

Large crops are often sent to market in peck, half- 
siene, or bushel baskets, and in the Plum district of 
Worcestershire the pot basket previously mentioned is 
extensively employed. For unripe Plums or any 
common variety like the Pershore, such large baskets 
are admirable, and some manufacturers of jam have all 
their Plums consigned in this manner. But the grower 
who wishes to make the best prices does not go to the 
jam-makers while he can find another market for good 
fruit in smaller quantities, though in the case of " gluts" 
or over-stocked local markets, these large consumers are 
very useful friends. 

Packing Grapes for sale is in many places a most 
important operation : in the Channel Islands, in the 
Worthing district of Sussex, and in several localities 
around the Metropolis, the production of Grapes for 
market is a huge business, and hundreds of tons of this 
fruit are sent by road and rail during a large part of 
the year to the leading centres. The competition is 
extremely keen, and the prices obtainable are much 
lower than they were twenty years ago ; consequently, 



io8 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



it is only by the best cultivation, and by marketing the 
produce in the best possible condition, that profitable 
returns can be realised. 

Next to fine berries and compact bunches, the 
"bloom" on Grapes is of considerable selling value as 
regards all the best qualities, and every care should be 
exercised to ensure its preservation. In fact, medium- 
size berries and bunches bearing a dense bloom will 
often take a higher place than larger samples imperfectly 




Box for Cucumbers. (Osman & Co.) 



coloured, or with the bloom rubbed off by careless 
handling or bad packing. The chief points are to secure 
firmness, and to avoid having any covering material 
directly in contact with the fruit, and for its convenience 
in aiding these objects the "Baby" basket has come 
into general use for the best Grapes. This is a shallow 
tray, sufficiently deep to protect the bunch fully at its 
widest part (the "shoulders"), and it can be had in 
various lengths, from 8 inches to 1 8 inches, and in 
shape either oval, oblong, or square. The best 
qualities are neat, light, and strong, being usually sold 
in " nests " or sets of 4 to 6, averaging for the ordinary 
sizes about is. each. They are furnished with small 



METHODS OF PACKING 109 



handles at each end, so that they can be readily lifted in 
or out of a larger basket or box without touching the 
grapes. The baskets can thus be placed direct in 
fruiterers' windows without unpacking, and the fruit is 
seen to the best advantage in all respects. Such 
packages must be charged or returned in every case. 

The method of packing is simple, but requires some 
practice to perform in a satisfactory manner. The bottom 
and sides of the basket may be covered with the finest 
wood-wool, over which must be placed a sheet of the 
stoutest smooth tissue-paper. Upon this the bunches 
are laid with the points to the centre and the stalk at the 
sides, where they are secured by string. When closely 
packed as only the skilled hand can do the work, without 
crushing or rubbing, no other tying is needed, as the 
bunches fix each other, but they must be laid direct in 
their places, and not shifted several times, or the results 
will be deplorable in bloom damage. The basket is then 
placed in another only just large enough to take it, and it 
must be secured to this firmly at each end so that there 
may be no danger of moving on the journey. Sometimes 
string is crossed backwards and forwards over the inner 
basket, for further security, and a sheet of paper placed 
over all as a protection from dust. The outer basket must 
be strong and furnished with a good lid, upon the upper 
side of which large conspicuous labels are placed to 
prevent any danger of the package being turned* upside 
down. Grapes of inferior quality to be sold at low 
prices are packed in shallow boxes or baskets, with care 
to prevent crushing, but in such cases it is not possible 
to protect the bloom very much. 

Melons travel well in baskets or boxes when plenty 
of wood-wool is used to secure firmness, and covered 
with tissue paper. But they should lie in single layers, 
and the lids must close on to the packing, so that the 
fruits will not be bruised by any movement in transit. 



no THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



Figs are best in small shallow boxes that will hold 
from 12 to 1 8 in a single layer with sufficient packing 
material to keep them firm. Large numbers are sent from 
South Europe, and from the Sussex fig-gardens (West 
Tarring), to the London and other markets packed in this 
way. The gathering must, however, as already remarked, 
be well in advance of the ripening. 

Cucumbers can be conveniently packed in shallow 
wooden trays that will take (with the packing) a dozen 
to eighteen full-size fruits. As regards the early forced 
cucumbers, we have found this plan to be far the best, 
as the fruits are all in single layers, and they travel more 
safely than when in bulk. The fruit is easily rubbed, 
bruised, or scratched, unless due care be exercised, and 
any such defects detract seriously from its value at a 
time when good prices must be had to bring the grower 
any profit. Wood-wool covered with paper makes a 
good bedding. When more abundant and cheaper 
several dozens can be packed in one basket or box, but 
it is never advisable to have many layers. 

Tomatoes are packed in a great many ways, baskets, 
boxes, and crates being employed for home-grown and 
imported produce. All the finest samples and early 
fruits should be packed in layers, either in shallow boxes 
or baskets that will hold a single layer each, or packing 
material with paper must be used to separate the layers. 
The fruits require much care, as one or two damaged 
specimens in a package will materially lessen the value 
of the whole. Over-ripe samples should never be 
packed with others, however fine and bright they may 
be ; it is only courting disaster. As with all other 
fruits, firmness is the great consideration, and wood- 
wool with paper affords the most efficient means of secur- 
ing this end. 



METHODS OF PACKING 



1 1 1 



Vegetables — Bunching 

An important aid in the preparation of certain vege- 
tables, salads, etc., for sale is a careful and tasteful 
method of bunching. As regards some crops, it is 
essential as the only recognised means by which they 
can be placed on the markets to any advantage. The 
requisite labour therefore, though a considerable item 
in the expenditure, can only be regarded as an unavoid- 
able necessity. The better the work is done, the more 
likely are the returns to be substantial, consequently it 
is worthy of every reasonable attention. 

Where Radishes are extensively grown for the early 
markets, the work of bunching provides employment for 
a large number of women and girls, who become ex- 
tremely smart at it, combining quickness with neat 
methods. The Turnip-rooted varieties are usually made 
up into round bunches, each about as much as a large 
handful, two to three dozen roots, and secured by thin 
willow twigs selected and prepared for the work. The 
large rooted sorts, which are more largely grown in 
some districts than the other type, particularly for the 
earliest crops, are made up into flatter bunches with the 
roots spreading out fan-like. When the variety is of 
bright colour, and the roots are well washed, such 
bunches have an ornamental appearance. The work is 
usually paid for by number — that is the score, the 
hundred, the gross, or in some districts by the great 
score, i.e. one hundred and twenty. 

Turnips and Carrots in all the best and earliest 
qualities are put up in bunches with advantage, the 
number varying with the size of the roots and the 
season, from one to two dozen roots each. These are 
almost always secured with stout flexible willows, and 
the roots should not only be even in size throughout, 
but they must be arranged so that the roots are on 



ii2 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



a level, and not huddled together in an irregular 
manner. 

Onions are made up into bunches and " ropes," 
but the latter mode is not so generally practised now as 
formerly ; at one time in the Onion-growing districts of 
Bedfordshire it constituted quite an important occupa- 
tion. It is also a convenient method for marketing the 
crop, and the Onions keep well when the " ropes " can 
be suspended in a suitable place. The method is 
especially adapted for good medium-sized roots with 
small " necks," the greater part of the top being 
removed, and the Onions are bound on with string to a 
foundation of cord, reeds, straw, or anything similar 
that will keep sufficiently firm for the purpose. They 
are tied on in succession, so that the " necks " are 
covered and a compact, even " rope" is formed a yard 
or more in length, bearing in four rows about a peck 
of Onions. 

Ordinary bunches of large ripe Onions are not 
satisfactory, as however well they may be tied, the tops 
are apt to break away and some of the roots become 
lost or loose. But for the early spring or salad onions, 
this method is the best that can be employed, and the 
bunching of these crops is as extensively carried on 
early in the season as it is with Radishes. Usually for 
market purposes a small handful is tied with matting, 
and some certain number of these are formed into a 
bunch spread out rather flat ; but the retailers divide 
these into the original size, or make up some of their 
own to suit their trade. A large proportion of the 
larger and later Turnips, Carrots, and Onions are sold 
loose by measure or weight, in baskets or bags, the 
only packing needed being care in the exclusion of 
defective specimens, and providing that all spaces are 
filled. 

Bunches of the larger roots are best packed in crates, 



METHODS OF PACKING 113 

unless they are conveyed by road, when they can often 
be loaded direct into the waggons. The bunches of 
salading are packed in large baskets or light boxes, but 
the former are chiefly used either without or with lids. 

Leeks are almost invariably bunched for market, and 
when extra fine, long, even, and well blanched, they 
have an admirable appearance for shop display. The 
size of the bunch or bundle varies greatly according to 
the demand of the market to which they are consigned. 
A few of the best quality may be tied together, or of a 
second grade larger bunches, including a dozen or more, 
are formed, somewhat on the style of the large Carrot 
bunch, i.e. flat with the base slightly spreading, soft 
willows being used for the tying. 

All the finest Celery heads or " sticks " are made up 
into bundles for market, though they are rarely retailed 
in that manner except for large establishments. From 
eight to sixteen or twenty "sticks "may be sold in a 
bundle, the finest in single layers, and the more 
moderate size in double layers, making a flat even 
arrangement, the root ends close together, and the top 
slightly spreading. Stout willows or osiers are used 
for securing these bundles, generally one band near the 
base and another about three parts of the length nearer 
the top. The heads should have all been trimmed and 
cleansed first, and are placed in the bundle, so that the 
flat side is outermost, as the solidity and " heart " of the 
" stick " can then be partly seen. 

Asparagus of all grades is sold in bundles, generally of 
loo stems, but sometimes in 50 or 25, as half or quarter 
bundles. In the Evesham Asparagus district small 
bundles of 20 stems each are first tied with Raffia, 
being placed in a small cradle-like frame so that the 
heads are all quite even ; then 6 of these primary bundles 
are tied into a large flat one by a single willow band ; 
thus 4 small bundles constitutes the centre or founda- 
h 



ii 4 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



tion of the market bundle and one at each end completes 
it. Many thousands of such bundles are sent from the 
Vale of Evesham every year. Though often consigned 
in open baskets, Asparagus is much safer and better 
when packed in flat-lidded baskets or hampers, with 
some soft green material which will help to retain the 
" grass " in a fresh state. It is customary to send a 
large quantity of the " grass " to market with the base 
of the stems uneven and jagged as cut from the beds, 
but the appearance is greatly improved if these are cut 
evenly across after the bundle is tied, and a less surface 
is also exposed for evaporation. The French growers 
employ a little machine for making the bundles even, as 
this is furnished with a knife by which the ends are cut 
at the same time. Practice is needed in tying Asparagus 
to the best advantage, but some women and girls become 
very expert at the work. 

Sea-kale is made up into flat spreading bundles to 
display the hearts and stalks to the best advantage. The 
base of the stem or the upper part of the root is cut 
short, but partly to conceal this and give the bunch a 
better effect, it is placed in a slanting position in a plaited 
punnet sufficiently wide to hold it firmly, and the depth 
is regulated in proportion to the size of the rootstalk 
left on the plants. The bunch requires to be tied, and 
sometimes a little soft paper is wrapped round the base, 
while the punnet also needs securing. Placed in larger 
baskets, careful packing is needed to avoid injury to 
the sea-kale, which should also come out as clean as 
possible. Smooth surfaced tissue paper should be freely 
used, and all made firm with wood-wool not in contact 
with the produce. 

For the earliest forced rhubarb, and all grades up to 
the latest, out-door produce bundling is the most usual 
and convenient way of preparing the crop for market. 
There is no fixed or standard size for these bundles : they 



METHODS OF PACKING 115 

are varied according to the season and price. The earliest 
will contain but few stalks, while the later ones will have 
two dozen or more, and weigh 6 lb. or over. The 
size is varied for the convenience of the retailer chiefly, 
and when the crop has reached its cheapest stage sub- 
stantial bundles are expected by buyers. The stalks are 
pulled, not cut, and a large portion of the leaf blade is re- 
moved, otherwise awkward, heavy, and unsightly bundles 
are produced. The earliest and most tender stalks are 
tied with Raffia or soft string at the top and bottom of 
the bundles, but for the later hardier produce willows 
are employed. The bundles should be made flat and 
compact, the stalks being reversed alternately, so that 
the heads are equally placed. They must be tied firmly 
and securely, whatever means is adopted, for loose 
bundles or those which become untied in the course of 
their removal are practically wasted, as buyers will not be 
bothered with them. Early rhubarb is packed in hampers 
or crates, but the later is usually loaded direct into the 
wagons or other conveyances. 

Young Cabbages, pulled early in the spring, before 
they have formed hearts, are made up into bunches and 
sold as greens ; Coleworts (or " Collards," as commonly 
termed) are treated similarly. The roots are shaken 
quite clear of soil and secured firmly by means of willow 
bands just below the first leaves, the number in a 
bundle being determined by the size of the plants, from 
6 to 12 being usual. 

Parsley for market sale is generally tied up in large 
bunches, and Watercress is dealt with in a similar 
manner, though both are frequently sold by the retailer 
in a loose state. Watercress is, however, often packed 
untied in flat hampers, and is made into bunches by the 
vendor who supplies the consumer. 

Early forced Dwarf Kidney (or French) Beans are 
frequently tied up in bundles of 50 or loo, being sorted 



1 1 6 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



into even-size pods for the purpose, and the bundles are 
then packed in hampers or boxes. Later out-of-doors 
supplies are placed direct into baskets or boxes, and with 
them as with Runners, Broad Beans and Peas no packing 
material is required beyond a sheet of paper as a 
covering. A trade has been developed by some growers 
in shelled peas, which are consigned in small boxes 
holding about 3 quarts each, direct to hotels, to shop- 
keepers, or private buyers. Where the labour of women 
and girls can be had cheaply, and a sufficient demand is 
secured, this work pays well. In large markets (like 
Covent Garden) it is carried out extensively by certain 
salesmen. 

Mustard and Cress are packed in small punnets 
separately, and where this is extensively grown under 
glass^the cutting and packing is an important business. 
Special punnets are employed, somewhat smaller than the 
I lb. plaited punnets used for Strawberries. Sufficient 
is cut with each sweep of a curved knife to fill a basket, 
and considerable practice is needed, both in the cutting 
and packing, to avoid waste and to secure an even and 
neatly filled punnet. The work must be done with 
great rapidity, too, where some thousands of punnets 
are despatched every morning in the season. The punnets 
are packed in baskets or boxes for travelling. 

Other vegetables which are marketed in bulk and do 
not admit of being bunched are packed in the same way 
as the respective bundles, namely in baskets, boxes, 
crates, or bags, unless they can be placed direct into 
the waggons like Cabbages, Broccoli, Savoys, etc., for 
conveyance by road. The earlier and choicer salads and 
vegetables, such as Lettuces, Endive, Cauliflowers, are 
preferably packed in large flat baskets with lids. The 
later supplies of those named, together with cabbages 
and other green vegetables, are most conveniently packed 
in the large wicker crates we have previously described. 



METHODS OF PACKING 117 



With roots such as Potatoes, the coarser and inferior 
Carrots, Turnips, Parsnips, and Onions, bags or sacks are 
most commonly employed and no special packing is 
therefore required after the grading advised has been 
carefully carried out. As regards Beetroot, more 
attention is needed, for it is important to avoid breaking 
the roots or damaging the skin as far as possible. The 
majority of retailers boil the beet themselves as required 
for sale, and the loss of colour occasioned by the sub- 
stance being injured seriously affects the value. When 
customers are supplied direct with hampers of salads or 
vegetables, the beet is boiled by the grower, and should 
then be wrapped in soft paper and packed with the 
greatest care. 

Packing Cut Flowers. — Large quantities of cut flowers 
are sent for sale in boxes, either previously bunched 
where the flowers are adapted for that purpose, or other- 
wise they are packed as separare flowers or trusses. 
In many cases bunching is very important, and if per- 
formed with taste is helpful in the selling. Daffodils 
and the varieties of Narciss are excellent in this way, 
the flowers all turned to face in one direction, so that 
every flower is seen to advantage. Such blooms 
in bunches of a dozen are convenient to pack, and 
the quantity consigned is readily checked, both by seller 
and purchaser. Wallflowers are nearly always bunched 
by the grower, and some Chrysanthemums, particularly 
the early ones from out-doors, are treated in a similar 
manner. The finest examples of the latter are at all 
times bunched by the best growers, who supply 
salesmen that have a large connection amongst retail 
florists. 

Roses are conveniently bunched, the number in each 
being partly dependent upon the choiceness of the 
variety, or the season when they are being sold. It is 
best in all cases to adopt a uniform system, and for the 



n8 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



larger flowers of most kinds a dozen is a recognised 
number, though in some districts it is customary to allow 
thirteen to the dozen with everything so packed. 

Violets are always bunched, and with their own 
foliage, but growers generally forward their supplies in 
large so-called " market bunches," which the retailers 
separate and make up in the usual button-hole size 
according to the abundance of the supply. Occasionally 
the producer prepares these smaller bunches, and they 
are again tied up in the larger size for packing. The 
requirements of customers or markets have to be con- 
sidered in this respect with regard to all consignments. 

Forced flowers like Lilies of the Valley, Roman 
Hyacinths, paper white Narciss, etc., are also commonly 
bunched, the first named especially, and with their own 
foliage. Early Tulips, when forced for cutting, are dealt 
with in the same manner, not mixed but in bunches of 
one colour or variety, and this applies to most flowers for 
market. Mixed bunches are seldom in demand, and it 
is preferable to send a small package of one sort than to 
attempt making up a larger one of several varieties. In 
the majority of cases the foliage of each sort is pre- 
ferred with each particular flower, but sometimes this 
has to be supplied separately. 

To summarise in regard to cut flowers that are 
bunched, the following are examples of those that are 
sold by the dozen bunches in some of the chief markets : 
Aster, Bouvardias, Chrysanthemums, Dahlias, Gaillardias, 
Gypsophilas, Lilies of the Valley, Mignonette, 
Marguerites, Montbretias, Statice, Violets, Wallflowers. 

Examples of those sold per dozen blooms are Callas 
(Richardias), Carnations, Cattleyas, Cypripedium 
Eucharis, Gardenias, Gladiolus (Spikes), Odontoglossums, 
Pancratiums, Roses, Stephanotis (trusses), and Tuberoses, 
or when on their stems the last are sold by the bunch. 
Ornamental grasses, Everlasting Flowers, Physalis 



METHODS OF PACKING 119 

Franchetii, and Viburnum Opulus (Berries) are also 
sent in bunches by the dozen. 

In connection with the cut-flower department the 
foliage sold separately in bunches must be considered, 
as similar methods of packing are adopted for most of 
that grown under glass. The following, for instance, 
are sent in dozen bunches : Crotons, Adiantum, Myrtle, 
and ferns of several kinds. Asparagus plumosus, 
Sprengeri, etc., usually in bunches, but the long growing 
form of the first named, is cut in lengths and sold by 
the " trail," which also applies to the "Smilax" of 
the markets (known in gardens as Myrsiphyllum 
asparagoides, or Asparagus medeoloides). Hardy 
foliage of many kinds is sold in bunches, particularly in 
the autumn, when the leaves are changing colour. 
Notable amongst these are Ampelopsis, Beech (Fagus 
sylvatica), Chestnut (Castanea vesca), Oaks of various 
sorts, but especially Quercus rubra, Q. coccinea, and Q. 
palustris. At other times the Mahonia (Berberis) 
foliage is in demand, and is sold in bunches like those 
already named, together with the Common Asparagus, 
and limited numbers of Carrot leaves when they are 
becoming tinged with red. Ivy is in demand of the 
small leaved, bronzed, and marbled forms, either in long 
" trails," in bundles, or by the dozen bunches. 

Obviously the bunching of flowers greatly facilitates 
the packing and aids in their preservation when due 
care is exercised in both operations. Bunches of medium 
size can be packed with safety and with economy of 
space in larger boxes than bunches of greater propor- 
tions. With the judicious use of suitable paper little 
other material is required, but if any is used for the 
sake of firmness, or to avoid crushing, nothing of a 
porous or absorptive character should be allowed to 
come in direct contact with the flowers. From the time 
the package leaves the grower until the contents are on 



i2o THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



sale the object must be to reduce evaporation to the 
lowest point, and this can only be ensured by employing 
well-made boxes with closely fitting lids. This principle 
is equally applicable if the boxes be of metal, wood, or 
card-board, but it must be considered in conjunction 
with the advice previously given to cut all flowers under 
the best possible conditions. When flowers are bunched 
with their own foliage this provides a means of ensuring 
freshness in the contents of the box, as the leaves furnish 
some moisture, while at the same time protecting the 
blooms. 

The exclusion of dust is an essential in packages of 
flowers. The blooms are always more or less damp at 
the time, and some exude a viscid substance in addition, 
so that every particle of dust which alights upon the 
petals will adhere to and disfigure them. This must be 
avoided by every care it is possible to take in the work 
of packing, and providing for their safe carriage. To 
the same end it is needful in the case of flowers with 
large anthers that shed their pollen quickly and profusely, 
to remove the anthers before packing, or indeed at the 
time of gathering. This attention is particularly 
requisite with the Lilies and white flowers generally, 
that have large, single, or bell-shaped corollas. 

In the markets the majority of flowers are sold from 
the boxes as received, therefore it must be borne in mind 
that the flowers should be faced to the top. Thus when 
the lid is removed the nature of the contents can be at 
once seen without pulling them about and injuring them 
in the process. Not only should each box contain but 
one sort or kind of flower, but the quality must be 
uniform throughout ; it is a mistake fatal to any good 
business to place a few extra fine bunches at the top to 
conceal inferior blooms below. 

Packing Plants. — Millions of seedling plants or rooted 
cuttings for spring and summer bedding are raised and sold 



METHODS OF PACKING 121 



in the Metropolitan district in small shallow boxes or trays. 
A size which is used in large quantities is 14J inches 
long by 9 inches wide and 2 inches deep ; they are 
made of thin wood, just strong enough to carry the plants 
and soil until the former are put out in the borders. When 
bought by the thousand, these cost less than id. each; 
by the gross, they are a fraction over that sum. Market 
men having an extensive trade in this direction occa- 
sionally employ their own machinery to produce supplies, 
but that can only pay where the machinery is utilised at 
other times during the year for general box-making. 
Small trays like those named will carry from two dozen to 
loo or more young plants, according to their kind and 
strength. Cuttings are often rooted in such boxes and 
sold direct without any transference to other boxes, but 
seedlings are usually pricked out, though a few sorts 
are sowed thinly and sold as they stand. Only those 
who are familiar with certain market gardening districts 
in the home counties have the slightest idea of the 
magnitude of the business done with plants in this way. 
Apart from those sent to market, whenever the market 
growers are within convenient reach by road from 
popular centres, the costermongers dispose of enormous 
quantities ; and as they pay cash for all they take it is a 
form of trade which often suits the grower well, though 
the prices are low. 

When sent to market these trays of small plants have 
either to be packed in wooden crates fitted with move- 
able shelves, or the van itself must be so fitted. The 
two chief difficulties are to economise the space, as the 
value is low, and at the same time to pack firmly, so 
that none may be overturned in transit. Provision must 
be adequate for this work, as when the markets are very 
full a proportion of the load may have to be taken home 
again, though it does not pay to do that many times. 

Plants grown in pots can be most conveniently packed 



122 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



in large trays or shallow boxes, as they can be rendered 
firmer for their journey, and are more readily placed in 
or removed from the vans. Straw, wood-shavings, or 
any similar material that may be available can be used 
for making the pots safe and firm in the trays. 

The more valuable fine foliage plants, like Palms, 
Dracaenas, Ferns and Crotons, usually pay for attention 
in tying up the leaves with matting and perhaps cover- 
ing them with paper at the same time. The plants 
require less space, and the leaves or branches are pro- 
tected from injury. The larger and choicer flowering 
plants in pots are worthy of similar care, especially when 
they have to be sent by rail or a long distance by road. 
Before packing plants in pots it must be seen that they 
are thoroughly watered, well in advance of the time 
they are required, so that superfluous water will have 
drained away, but leaving the soil moist. It is a great 
mistake to send pot plants to market in a dry state. 

Where shrubs and trees, including hardy fruits, form 
a portion of the stock the best method of conveying 
them is in strong shallow wide baskets furnished with 
handles at the sides. The depth and width will be 
regulated by the size of the plants and their roots, also 
by convenience in removal, though, as deciduous trees 
or shrubs are packed without soil in the autumn and 
winter months, the weight is not a serious consideration 
as a rule. The roots are placed closely together with 
straw for protection from frost, and the whole is 
covered with mats ; when the trees are large it is 
necessary to place sticks in the sides of the baskets, 
which are tied together at the tops to form a kind of 
cone over the plants, the branches of which have been 
previously drawn in to the main stems and secured by 
string. Mats are then sown round the sticks, and the 
package is complete. Sometimes a strong central stake 
is required to ensure the necessary rigidity ; or, when 



METHODS OF PACKING 123 

trees 8 to 10 feet high are being packed, the basket is 
dispensed with, the roots are packed with straw and 
covered with mats, which may be taken up the stems, 
and perhaps over the heads, if they are small enough 
to allow of its being done conveniently. 

Roots of herbaceous or other hardy plants are packed 
in hampers or shallow boxes, every effort being made 
to reduce the weight as far as is consistent with the 
safety of the plants. Where the soil is inclined to be 
heavy and adhesive, such plants should never be lifted 
when that is in a wet state, if it is by any means 
avoidable. Large numbers of hardy plants are now 
kept in pots for the express purpose of ensuring ready 
packing at any time. Most bulbous plants are lifted and 
stored when growth is completed, so no special difficulty 
attaches to their being properly packed as required. 

It is seldom that market gardeners are called upon to 
transmit plants, roots, bulbs, or seeds to foreign countries, 
but occasionally the demand may arise in special cases. 
The regulations concerning the importation of plants to 
the particular countries must be first ascertained, as these 
are very stringent in some of the colonies and foreign 
states. This is especially so with regard to vines and 
fruit trees, and applies to cuttings, buds, or scions for 
grafting, as well as to rooted plants. Forms have to be 
obtained, and a declaration made respecting the value and 
nature of the contents. 

For the majority of plants of small size Wardian cases 
are largely employed, some preparation being needed to 
ensure that there is not an undue amount of moisture 
present when the cases are closed for their journey. 
Metal-lined boxes are used for plants in a dormant 
state, bulbs, or seeds, and for small consignments we 
have tried ordinary biscuit tins with the lids soldered on, 
in which the plants have travelled safely to South Africa 
and Australia. We have also received scions of fruit 



i2 4 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



trees from India packed in thin rubber sheets or oiled 
linen, which have survived a long journey overland. In 
all such instances the ends of the shoots are inserted in 
hot sealing-wax, pitch, or some similar substance, to 
prevent evaporation. 



THE DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCE 



Selling land produce of all kinds to the best advantage 
is widely recognised as one of the most difficult parts of 
a cultivator's business. In fact it constitutes a business 
in itself, which requires the closest study and a consider- 
able share of natural aptitude to ensure any substantial 
progress. There are far more men who fail in this than 
in the actual cultivation, for many details, apparently 
unimportant, affect the results in a serious manner. We 
have reviewed most of the essential preliminaries requisite 
to produce the best results, and we have now to consider 
the means by which produce can be distributed to con- 
sumers to secure the maximum returns at the minimum 
expense. Those are the objects which a commercial 
horticulturist must always have before him, and to their 
attainment he should direct his utmost energies. It is, 
however, a well-known fact that many skilled cultivators, 
in giving their best attention to the production of the 
crops, do not fully realise the importance of an equal con- 
centration upon the marketing and selling. 

The three essentials are quick conveyance, safety in 
transit, and the lowest expense that is consistent with 
safety and speed. The whole of the produce with which 
the market gardeneris concerned is of a perishable nature, 
some, like the root crops, being much less so than others, 
but ripe fruits and flowers rank amongst the goods that 
are most seriously deteriorated in value by undue delay. 
This must therefore always be the first matter to occupy 
the attention of the vendor, as, failing that, all other 
care is of little avail. We have therefore to consider the 



125 



i26 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



methods of sale available and the means of conveyance 
at command, pointing out their respective advantages or 
defects. 

Four systems of disposing of British-grown produce 
are followed either separately or in combination. These 
are — 

1. Consignment to salesmen. 

2. Consignment to market, the grower acting as his 

own salesman. 

3. Consignment to the retailers, either shopkeepers 

or hawkers. 

4. Delivery direct to the consumers. 

Consignment to Market Salesmen. — Enormous quantities 
of garden crops are dealt with under the first-named 
method, for it offers advantages which have considerable 
weight with many growers. They can give their whole 
time to the cultivation and packing of their produce, and 
thus probably are able in many instances to obtain better 
results either in bulk or quality. There are plenty of 
reliable salesmen also who study the interests of their 
clients as far as they can consistently with the rapid 
clearance of the goods committed to their care, and who 
for their own reputation are anxious to secure the best 
returns. With all such men the grower is perfectly safe, 
as far as the system can ensure safety, and he has the 
personal relief of transferring the responsibility of the 
sale to another person. Salesmen with well-established 
businesses often have wide connections, which enable 
them to find outlets for goods that would require long 
experience for a grower to discover and utilise. 

But there are disadvantages and defects in the system 
of which the unscrupulous are quick to take advantage, 
and the growers are in such cases the conscious or 
unconscious victims. In the first place, a salesman cannot 
depend upon one producer, and when he sends out an 



THE DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCE 127 



advice that the market rates rule high for any particular 
class of goods he communicates with others who are 
likely to have the stock in demand. As several sales- 
men have probably done the same, the result almost 
invariably is an all round disappointment, caused by the 
conspicuous difference between the selling prices and 
those advised. It is not surprising under such circum- 
stances that growers complain, and are often inclined to 
make reflections which are not justified. 

Again, under this system, a grower can have no 
control over the actual selling ; he rarely knows who 
the purchaser is, and in the majority of cases the 
producer is unknown to the buyer, any extension of his 
business therefore rests in the hands of the salesman. 
If a difference arises, and another salesman is tried, or 
other markets sought, the grower has no connection to 
carry with him. This is quite apart from any questions 
respecting the actual prices realised for what is sold. 
Reliable salesmen never object to giving the fullest 
details that can be reasonably expected, but if every 
client required an account of all transactions, or to 
inspect the salesman's books, no business of the kind 
could be conducted with profit. It is often the case 
that large consignments of any particular produce may 
be sold to a dozen or more different persons at varying 
rates, and cash is received, so that keeping an account 
against the buyer is not required. The amou-nt of each 
sale is put down to the credit of the sender, and the 
total rendered as usual. In many cash transactions the 
name of the purchaser is not known, unless there are 
baskets or boxes to be returned, when booking becomes 
a necessity as a check, though they would also be charged 
to strangers. 

When sending fruit or vegetables in different grades, 
or in several varieties, we have found salesmen willing 
to keep the results separate as a guide to the grower. 



128 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



This is important, as it is soon found which quality 
yields the best return, and the future consignments 
may be regulated accordingly. Many salesmen make 
a speciality of some class of goods ; some are particularly 
concerned with fruit, others with vegetables, and still 
others with flowers. A few will be found that have a 
connection for the highest qualities only, and they will 
not be troubled with inferior grades ; while others 
again supply a different class of buyers in large quantities 
at cheap rates, and, in consequence, are not so well fitted 
for finding a good market for the best quality. All 
these are matters which demand the producer's attention 
and investigation. 

Salesmen's charges vary from 5 per cent, to 10 per 
cent, on the sales, perhaps the most usual being 7J per 
cent., or is. 6d. in the pound. It is the custom in some 
markets to charge a fixed commission per box or basket, 
regardless of the price obtained ; when the prices are 
low this falls rather heavily upon the vendor, but when 
they are good he has the corresponding advantage. On 
the whole, it is more satisfactory to pay a percentage 
on the results. The higher rates of commission are 
charged when the salesmen supply the baskets required, 
otherwise a separate charge is made for their use. 
When it is considered that most salesmen will render a 
weekly account with their cheques, and that if they do 
not receive cash for the goods sold they take all the 
risk in collecting the debts, the charges cannot be 
regarded as unreasonable. At the same time the com- 
mission and all other deductions (like market charges) 
are made from the amount paid to the grower, and in a 
bad market these appear rather formidable. 

Growers as Salesmen. — The second method of consign- 
ment is especially convenient when there are two or 
more partners in the business, when the grower has 
sons old enough to take part in the active work, or 



THE DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCE 129 



when the means at command permits the engagement 
of a responsible manager. In any of these circumstances 
the system offers many advantages to energetic men ; it 
permits an absolute control over the whole business ; 
the grower acquires an exact and first-hand knowledge 
of the market demands and the state of the trade ; he is 
able to form a connection that is as valuable as a shop 
trade, and he sees in what direction he can advance with 
a prospect of success. He also knows the precise 
condition of the produce on arrival, and he is not 
disturbed with doubts as to whether the prices obtained 
are genuine or not. Against this must be set the 
expenses incurred, the extra work and anxiety, the 
booking and collecting of debts, with the risk of 
loss. 

The usual practice is to take a stand or stall in some 
good market, and as the bulk of the trade is transacted 
in early morning it often necessitates an overnight 
journey with the expense of lodging, etc., unless the 
grower travels with his produce by road, and that means 
perhaps a rough, all-night experience. 
* In the more important markets the competition for 
stands, especially those well placed, is very keen and 
applications may be on the books for months before a 
vacancy occurs. The authorities, too, are very parti- 
cular in some markets respecting the position and 
credentials of the would-be stall-holders, so that when- 
ever this method is to be adopted, arrangements must be 
made a considerable time in advance, or other means 
will have to be at command temporarily. The rent of 
market stands varies greatly \ in some it is moderate and 
paid weekly or monthly, but in others it is paid every 
market day and amounts to a fairly heavy charge. 

In favour of the system described, it must be said that 
within our own knowledge many growers have adopted it 
with a large measure of success, and have by its help 
1 



130 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



founded prosperous businesses. Two of the most 
flourishing firms of market gardeners in the Midlands 
have followed it for two generations with exceptional 
advantage. In one case over 400 acres are under the 
closest cultivation, and not only do the members of the 
firm sell the whole of this produce, but they also act as 
agents for many others. Thus two departments are 
utilised in the support of their business. 

One notable difficulty must be indicated, namely, that 
rarely can more than one or two markets be utilised in 
this manner : whereas, when consigning to other sales- 
men, the choice of a market need only be regulated by the 
existing demand for the goods offered. This is in a 
large measure overcome if a first-class centre is selected, 
as when a reputation has been gained, telephonic or 
telegraphic orders from widely separated towns can be 
dealt with as promptly as if consigning to the respective 
local markets. 

Supplying Retailers. — A good connection amongst shop- 
keepers will render substantial help to any market- 
grower, but it is of the greatest value to those in a 
small way, or at the commencement of their experience. 
It is then especially important to reduce expenses and 
intermediate profits to the lowest level, and dealing 
direct with the retailers is one convenient way of accom- 
plishing this object. The method can be carried out 
to the fullest advantage where proximity to a town 
permits the conveyance of produce by road; but that 
necessarily provides only for moderate amounts of 
goods, and as the supplies increase, conveyance by rail 
must be relied upon for extension. The opportunities 
for developing a large trade in such a method must 
always be limited, but it is surprising that more is not 
done in this way in populous cities. In the Metropolis, 
for example, it is by no means uncommon to find green- 
grocers and fruiterers purchasing produce in the markets 



THE DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCE 131 



which has been grown within a short distance of their 
own shops. We have thus known crops carted 14 
miles, to and from a market, when about one mile 
would have taken them from the ground to the retailer. 
The extra expense incurred and the time wasted in 
such a round-about method are against the interests of 
the grower, and the condition of the produce (or the 
price) is certainly not improved for the benefit of the 
consumer. 

Communication must be established with customers, 
and a regular system of delivery adopted to ensure a 
reliable trade in connection with shopkeepers, and well 
graded produce in moderate size packages is the best 
suited for the business. It is the uncertainty of the 
desired supplies and qualities being received when 
required which induces many shopkeepers to prefer 
the expense and labour of fetching their goods from 
market to the risk of being disappointed by the grower's 
failure to meet his wants. The question of current 
prices also gives rise to disputes in this system, and if 
either party is over-reaching or misinformed, difficulty is 
certain to arise. When a retailer goes to a market, if 
the price or quality in one case does not satisfy him, he 
tries other salesmen, until he procures what he needs. 
Producers who are anxious to develop a direct business 
should always keep this in mind, and with the exercise 
of discretion it is possible to gradually form a reliable 
and profitable trade. 

Under some circumstances it may answer the grower's 
purpose to have one or more shops of his own, but 
considerable caution is needed in entering upon this 
department of business or the results may" be disastrous. 
In the first place, a responsible person must always be in 
charge ; other labour will be also needed, with probably 
horses and carts. The expenses are consequently 
heavy, and unless it has been proved that a good opening 



132 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



exists, the risk will be considerable. Besides this, a shop 
in a good district cannot be kept sufficiently stocked by 
any one grower, and it would be necessary to buy in 
the market at nearly all seasons of the year. However, 
if a florist's business is combined with fruit and green- 
grocery, a man who has a family of grown-up sons and 
daughters can, by the exercise of due thought, render 
the retail part of his business both useful and profitable. 

A careful estimate should be made of all the expenses 
before starting upon it, and judicious economy must be 
exercised. It is preferable, as a rule, in such cases 
to avoid highly rented places, also those where a 
business has been created for which a large sum is re- 
quired. The form of trade that has been carried on 
may be totally different from that it is intended to 
develop, and the capital sunk would thus be partly lost. 
Endeavour to make a cash trade with cheap articles in a 
populous district ; or build up a high-class business in a 
more wealthy neighbourhood with the best quality 
produce obtainable. It is wise to choose one or other 
of these courses and follow it out consistently ; they 
require very different methods of treatment, but the 
first gives the least amount of risk where the shop can 
be managed in a smart, up-to-date, energetic manner. 
One essential in successful shop management is that the 
advantages of tastefully aud effectively displaying the 
goods must be mastered. There is an artistic element 
of a most practical character in placing the goods before 
the public in the best possible manner, which should not 
be ignored even in the poorest districts. Just as in 
grading and packing, the extra labour demanded is in- 
significant in comparison with the gains. 

One form of dealing with retailers is supplying the 
itinerant vendors known as costermongers and hawkers, 
a useful and generally an industrious class of men, with 
whom some growers transact a large business. They 



THE DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCE 133 



invariably require the cheapest goods, but as they will 
often take produce that would barely pay for sending to 
market, they are by no means to be despised. In the 
great majority of instances they are prepared to pay cash 
for whatever they have, and if they are not, the growers 
must know his men thoroughly, or the risk in giving 
credit is too considerable to entertain. 

Markets. — Markets vary greatly in their characters and 
requirements, which need to be carefully studied by all 
who utilise that means for disposing of their goods. 
Not only do they differ in the various towns, but in the 
largest cities, where more than one market is established 
for the sale of similar produce, the differences are often 
considerable. This is well exemplified in the Metropolis 
by a comparison of the markets at Stratford, Spitalfields, 
the Borough, and Covent Garden. It constitutes a part 
of the grower's business to make himself familiar with 
such differences and utilise the knowledge in his own 
interest. 

Auction Sales. — Sale by auction is an important means 
of disposing of large quantities of fruits, but it is almost 
entirely confined in the Metropolis to imported produce, 
including fruits, flowers, and early salads or vegetables. 
In provincial towns the home-grown crops are often sold 
by auction, though generally in small quantities, which 
are bought up by agents or collecting salesmen. This 
is done at Evesham, where, during the^busy season for 
fruits and vegetables, sales are held every day in two 
markets, and sometimes twice a day, i.e. in the early 
morning and the afternoon. It is convenient for small 
growers who can send their produce by road and avoid 
the expenses of rail transit. 

It would be thought that such sales might be extended 
with advantage to growers, but in the chief centres it is 
urged against the method that British producers rarely 
consign one class of goods in sufficient quantity of a 



i 3 4 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



uniform quality to render it worth the trial. So long as 
better prices can be obtained for small consignments 
there is no need to trouble about the matter, but we 
have seen imported fruits sold by auction in bulk at 
prices considerably in advance of those being obtained in 
the same market for similar quality and varieties from 
home-growers sent in by the bushel or half sieve. 

Consignment direct to Consumers. — Much can be said in 
the favour of any method which facilitates the direct 
communication between producers and consumers, because 
the immediate interests of both are concerned. "When 
growers on the one hand are obtaining prices which 
leave a very small margin after all expenses are deducted, 
it is a common experience to find the consumers paying 
loo per cent, greater prices for similar produce. This 
difference is divided amongst those through whose hands 
it has passed, and is partly utilised in recouping the 
dealers for losses on perishable goods. But the grower 
also has equal or heavier losses to face from weather 
influences, or injuries to his crops by insects and disease, 
but he cannot command so large a percentage return on 
his outlay to provide against such contingencies. Middle- 
men cannot be entirely dispensed with for the reasons 
previously stated, but there is no question that thousands 
of growers might improve their condition and benefit the 
public by a systematic attempt to reach the consumer 
without intermediate agents. That it can be done has 
been proved in many trades, and it is being extended 
both in commercial horticulture and farming with marked 
success. 

Two methods by which consumers can be reached 
direct are, first, delivery at the houses from the ground, 
and second, forwarding packages from a distance by train 
or post. The former is adapted for beginners in a 
moderate way, near large towns that can be readily 
worked by horse and cart or van. Many industrious 



THE DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCE 135 



men have succeeded in founding substantial connections 
on this basis which have subsequently developed into 
large businesses. If good produce at reasonable prices is 
brought regularly to the townspeople's doors, a certain 
trade can be ensured at all seasons, for the freshness of 
the goods offered should always impart a value to them 
apart from their actual quality. 

It is little use trying to combine this form of trade 
with that in which the retailers are supplied by the 
grower. When shopkeepers find a man is also dealing 
direct with the consumers, including probably their 
own customers, it is hardly reasonable to expect them 
to continue the connection. The grower must decide 
which form will answer his purpose best, and proceed 
accordingly. Of course he may be able to include 
hotels and restaurants in his rounds, and if he succeed 
in securing the contracts for some of these, or for any 
large public establishment, he will be on the right 
road to ensure a market for all he can produce without 
any intermediate profits being deducted from his takings. 
The personal influence and aptitude of the seller will 
exercise a material effect upon the results, but the 
main points to depend upon are good quality with 
freshness in the produce and reasonable prices. It is 
necessary to be early with all fruits and vegetables in 
their respective seasons, as well as reaching the towns 
in good time on the days selected for the journeys. 
Further, the partiality of customers for special articles 
should be studied, and the characteristic requirements of 
a town or district must be fully considered. Endeavour 
to acquire a reputation for certain classes of produce, 
and maintain a sufficiently varied supply on all occasions, 
even though it necessitate purchasing for the purpose. 
If a customer can only be supplied with a portion of 
what is required, the probability is that other vendors 
will secure the whole order. 



136 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



Spacious light spring carts or vans are the best 
vehicles for the conveyance of garden produce to towns 
on a regular system. The vans should be fitted with 
a movable waterproof cover, or failing this, waterproof 
sheets must be carried for the protection of the goods. 
With a cover the vans can be utilised for many purposes 
when not required in the ordinary trade. Hawkers in 
the Metropolis employ a light spring barrow with a 
long body which can be purchased for a few pounds, 
but the majority are let on hire, some firms in the East 
End of London keeping over 300 in stock for the 
purpose. 

Large numbers of market gardeners and small farmers 
are either too far from the towns to render delivery by 
road profitable, or these are so well supplied locally 
that there is little room for extension. In such cases 
small packages either as boxes or baskets become 
extremely serviceable, and a great business has sprung 
up in this direction. With suitable organisation and all 
the facilities the Railway Companies can afford when 
they give their attention to the matter, this form of 
trade may develop into enormous proportions with 
equal advantage to producer and consumer. There are 
difficulties attending it as in all other forms of business, 
but they are surmountable, and the efforts demanded to 
accomplish this are well repaid in the results. Where 
the Railway Companies deliver the packages to the 
houses of the consigners, all the sender has to do is to 
make his boxes or baskets as secure as possible and to 
convey them to his nearest station. The chief difficulty 
consists in finding customers that can be regularly 
supplied in this manner, and in securing payment. 
Some help is rendered by a few of the Railway 
Companies in the first matter by printing lists giving 
the names and addresses of producers on their system 
who undertake to supply small quantities of specified 



THE DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCE 137 



articles. These lists are distributed gratuitously to all 
applicants, and they are advertised widely in Time 
Tables and other publications. This action has brought 
a considerable trade to some producers ; and the latter 
can further aid themselves individually by the distribu- 
tion of circulars in the towns that are most likely to 
suit their purpose. Judicious advertisements in papers 
with large circulations, or in those that appeal to certain 
classes of readers, also furnish assistance in the same 
direction. Bearing in mind the subjects we have 
discussed respecting selection and grading, with good 
packing, the formation of a sound business should only 
be a question of time. As regards payment, it is wise 
to adopt the plan of " cash with order " for all new or 
unknown customers ; it is in fact preferable throughout ; 
but if a well-known and regular customer desires to pay 
at stated periods, say fortnightly or monthly, it is a 
matter for consideration. Where the grower is paying 
carriage in advance, besides providing boxes, etc., it is 
only fair to expect immediate payment, and that is the 
only safe method on which such a business can be 
conducted. 

Fruiterers in the larger cities, notably in the West End 
of London, occasionally make a feature of small boxes of 
the choicest British fruits, and when these or other 
dealers find there is a demand, an important opening is 
afforded for small packages. Some of the principal 
general stores have also taken up boxes of home-grown 
fruits, and when these can be sent in consignments of 
fifty to one hundred boxes each, several advantages are 
gained. One is that on some of the lines the total weight 
of a consignment to one person is charged for, and not 
on the packages separately. This makes a material 
difference in favour of the sender. 

A branch of this direct consignment system which 
has only been partly developed by a few growers is the 



138 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



delivery of hampers of fruits and vegetables to families 
in towns, as often as may be required each week. It 
would be possible to extend this considerably, especially 
where farming is combined with market gardening, as 
other produce, such as butter, eggs, fowls, ducks, etc., 
can be included in the arrangements. We know some 
market gardeners who have followed this method for the 
past twelve years with substantial advantage to them- 
selves, and satisfaction to those they have supplied. 

Obviously several of the systems described could be 
worked in conjunction with each other, and it is essential 
that no opportunity be lost which offers the slightest 
chance of sufficient remuneration. After having in- 
curred all the expenses of cultivation, it is little short of 
a calamity when the produce cannot be sold to good 
purpose, particularly when the demand is so great in all 
the centres of population. Usually it is found that one 
method must be depended upon for the chief bulk of 
the supplies ; all the others come in as useful helps as 
the occasion demands. 

Exportation of produce rarely concerns the home- 
grower, unless a portion of his business is devoted to the 
manufacture of preserves, either jams, jellies, or pickles. 
If means and experience have permitted the development 
of an up-to-date factory, and his productions have 
gained sufficient celebrity to be in demand in other 
countries, the export trade may be something consider- 
able. But that will constitute a business in itself, which 
scarcely comes within the scope of a treatise like the 
present one. Similar remarks also apply if ordinary 
nursery stock is included in the produce of the holding, 
as occasionally exportation will be needed. 



THE CONVEYANCE OF PRODUCE 



The available modes of conveying land produce to the 
markets, or to the consumers, are worthy of a chapter, 
for in many ways there is evident room for improvement, 
and the growers' efforts are partly discounted by defects 
that should admit of remedies. Garden crops in the 
British Isles are largely conveyed by road and by rail, 
and to a much more limited extent by post. It is there- 
fore with the two first methods that we are chiefly con- 
cerned, and these deserve our earnest attention. 

Conveyance by Road 

This old-time method of market gardeners situated 
around the large cities still presents many advantages 
where the distance is not too great. As compared with 
former periods, there has been marked improvement in 
the condition of the roads, which facilitates all kinds of 
traction, decreasing the strain upon horses and increasing 
the speed of conveyance. But against this advantage 
must be set the fact that growers have been forced out 
farther from the markets by the advance of population 
and the value acquired by the land for building pur- 
poses. Every few miles of road thus added to the 
journeys increase expense and difficulties, until at last 
the limit is reached as far as horse power is concerned. 
In the metropolitan district it has been the custom for 
generations to convey the garden produce to the central 
markets by two, three, or four-horse wagon loads on 
one day, and return with manure the following day. 
From the London stables the manure could be had for a 



!39 



i 4 o THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



nominal sum, indeed in some cases it has been obtainable 
without any actual outlay, on the undertaking that the 
yards should be regularly cleared. It is incalculable how 
many millions of tons of stable manure have been thus 
applied to land in the Thames Valley, and we have 
examined soil that has been under market garden cul- 
tivation for nearly 200 years, which was simply a mass 
of humus to the depth of nearly three feet. No 
system could have answered the grower's purpose better 
in every way, and it is easy to understand why even now 
it is pursued whenever the position of the ground per- 
mits. But manure cannot be obtained so cheaply as 
formerly. Dealers now buy it up for despatch by train 
to longer distances, and there is considerable competition 
at some seasons of the year for the available supplies. 
When manure is not required or not obtainable, the 
wagons are loaded with empty baskets or boxes, so that 
the expenses are confined to the horse and man labour 
requisite, together with the provision of suitable vehicles. 
The outlay is, however, a heavy item to take into con- 
sideration, for a full size market wagon, well and 
strongly built as it must be, is very expensive, and 
occasional repairs have to be provided for besides. If 
a market is only attended once or twice a week, it is 
possible to employ the horse labour on the land for part 
of each week, but if three market days are utilised, the 
whole labour of a team of horses is needed for the carting 
alone. In estimating probable expenses due allowance 
must be made for all these contingencies. 

The London market wagon is a heavy vehicle with 
a long body, fitted with sides and rails, so that an 
enormous load of bulky vegetables, like cabbages or 
cauliflowers, can be packed on often to a height of 
6 feet or more above the sides. Such wagons are 
mostly used for vegetables, but they are also employed 
for fruit in baskets or half-sieves, but lighter vans are 



THE CONVEYANCE OF PRODUCE 141 



generally utilised for the choicer or soft fruits, in the 
style of that described for local selling in towns. On 
good roads, with the requisite horse-power, loads of 
two to three tons can be taken with safety on the larger 
wagons, but the pace is a slow one, and a ten or twelve 
miles' journey may take from four to five hours. 

A vehicle extensively employed by market-gardeners 
in some districts is the lorry, which is both light and 
strong, usually consisting simply of a body on four 
wheels, without sides or rails. It is convenient for 
loading, but to the inexperienced it would seem difficult 
to pack a large load securely, yet this is performed with 
considerable skill by those accustomed to them. In no 
town can this form of lorry be seen more in evidence 
than in Evesham, particularly during the spring and 
summer. It is the favourite conveyance of the district, 
and the speed with which large one-horse loads are 
rushed up the roads, round the corners, and into the 
Great Western station-yard is astonishing, seeing that 
accidents are of rare occurrence. The whole affair is 
very suggestive of the hazardous way in which the cars 
are driven in the Irish towns, when it appears a certainty 
that at every corner some of the passengers will be pro- 
jected into the road or on to the path. We have watched 
some hundreds of the Evesham lorries being driven at 
headlong speed, but never saw a single basket dislodged 
nor a collision of any consequence. They are often used 
for taking women and girls out to the gardens for piece- 
work in the busy season, and the natives are both safe 
and comfortable, seated on pot baskets in the centre, 
though the " strangers" take a time to get accustomed 
to it. Similar lorries are in use amongst greengrocers 
and fruiterers in a few districts, and generally prove very 
serviceable ; they are much cheaper than ordinary wagons, 
and lighter horses can be employed for them, with in- 
creased speed. 



1 42 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



Motors and Tractors. — Within the past few years the 
development of various forms of motor cars and traction 
wagons has led to many experiments in the application 
of such power to the needs of market-gardeners. The 
greater distance at which the producing grounds are 
now placed that supply the large centres has rendered 
some other system of carriage essential, unless the 
growers are to forsake the road for the rail. In addition 
to the advantage of loading back with manures or 
empties, as pointed out, there are several other matters 
which render the utilisation of roads desirable. One 
of the most important of these is the fact that a wagon 
is loaded with crops on the land, and they have not to be 
handled again until the market is reached ; whereas, 
however near the station may be at the grower's end of 
the rail, horse-power must be employed for the convey- 
ance to the line, with the loading up at the ground and 
the unloading into the companies' vans or wagons. This 
also has to be repeated at the station nearest to the 
market, with the result that the risks are more than 
doubled, because the work at the last-named will pro- 
bably not be performed with anything like the same 
care as at starting. Delays of a serious character, also, 
take place in the delivery to the markets, perhaps at 
some critical time. 

Consequently there are many reasons why market 
growers on good roads within twenty miles of a large 
centre should endeavour to utilise any motive power 
that offers a prospect of serving their purpose. Motors 
or tractors do not come within the scope of the smaller 
growers ; the outlay is too great, and they have not 
sufficient produce covering a long period in the year to 
keep such machines in constant work. The case is quite 
different where a large area is under market garden 
cultivation, as it is possible to employ similar power on 
the land in partial or entire substitution for horse labour. 



THE CONVEYANCE OF PRODUCE 143 



Efforts have been made to provide machines that will 
perform both land and road work and to some extent 
this has been accomplished. But the best authori- 
ties agree that so far as development has proceeded up 
to the present it is more satisfactory to employ different 
machines for the two purposes. Substantial advance 
has been made in the improvement of the road motors, 
etc., and though some of the earlier forms have proved 
disappointing, yet there are many of the latest types 
being worked to the entire satisfaction of their owners. 
The extension has been much greater amongst large 
manufacturers in town than in the market garden 
industry, but an increasing attention is being paid to the 
matter by these producers, most of whom speak favour- 
ably of their results which have now passed the experi- 
mental stage. A special issue of the Commercial 
Motor (Temple Press, London) on August 31st, 1 905, 
gave an exhaustive description of the progress made by 
market gardeners in the utilisation of motor power for 
traction purposes, together with illustrations of the 
various types of machines already in use. Reference to 
this journal will give much more information on the 
subject than our space will permit, but a few of the 
principal points are worthy of notice. 

Mr W. J. Lobjoit, of Messrs W. J. Lobjoit & Sons, 
Heston Farm, near Hounslow, has furnished the following 
account of the relative expenses of Tractor* and horse 
haulage. The Tractors used were two of Wallis & 
Steevens', and one of Wm. Foster & Co.'s. 
Annual Tractor costs — 

First cost of three Tractors —£ 1 150 

Interest at 5 per cent, per annum . . .£57 10 o 

Depreciation at 20 per cent, per annum . 230 o o 



Carry forward . £287 10 o 



i 4 4 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



Brought forward 



Repairs 
Coal * 
Oil and waste 
Insurance and licenses 
Water 
Wages 



Total for three Tractors 



£287 10 o 
120 o o 



128 o 

26 o 

45 o 

4 

435 o 



First cost of 12 horses =£540 
Interest at 5 per cent, per annum . 
Depreciation at 20 per cent, per annum 
Forage and straw 
Veterinary Attendance 
Harness 
Insurance 
Water . 
Shoeing 
Wages 



Total for 12 horses 



. £1045 10 o 

Annual estimated horse expenses to do the work of 
three Tractors 



£27 o o 
108 o o 
468 o o 

12 12 O 
15 O O 
7 
4OO 
15 O O 
468 o o 

£1124 12 O 

Mr Lobjoit adds " this shows only £79 in favour of 
the Tractors — on paper. The advantage, however, in 
working is much more than that." He further remarks 
that when the agricultural motor comes along that can 
work the land and haul one's goods as well, the saving 
will be much greater than it is now. 

The Ivel agricultural motor has been used to some 
extent for haulage but chiefly for land work, and in 
regard to the latter Messrs RefFell Bros., Manor Farm, 
Horton near Colnbrook, Bucks, supply this interesting 
comparison between horse, steam, and motor labour. 



THE CONVEYANCE OF PRODUCE 145 



Horses — 

Nine horses for ploughing l\ acres @ 

2s. 6d £126 

Three men @ 3s. . . . 090 

Three boys @ is, . . . 030 

Total jfi 14 6 

Steam — 

Ploughing 2 J acres @ 12s. . . £1 J o 
Cost of Coal and Carting Coal and 

Water o n 3 



Motor — 

Ploughing 2 acres — 

One driver . 

One ploughman 
Lubricants 
Petrol 



Total £1 18 3 



£046 
026 
o I o 
o 10 6 



Total 18 6 

Mr Joseph Rochford, Turnford Nurseries, near 
Broxbourn, uses a small tractor (Wallis & Steevens) for 
cucumbers, grapes, and tomatoes, which carries 4 tons 
of the first or I ton of the second, thus doing " the 
work of four big horses, and a week cheaper than 
they did." He also adds " The Wolseley people are 
now building me a 4 cylinder 24-horse power van to 
carry 3 tons at 8 miles an hour. This will do the 
journey of 17 miles easily in 2 \ hours, and we expect 
to use it daily for one journey to market and back (34 
miles) but in one busy season it will do two journeys. 
Our produce varies from 2 tons a day in winter, to 15 
tons a day in the summer months, from 35 acres of glass- 
houses. 



K 



146 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



Messrs Mann & Sons, Whitton Road, Twickenham, 
employ a Straker steam wagon which carries " from 4 to 

5 tons on the motor and from 2 to 3 tons on the trailer, 
using our existing horse wagons as trailers. In this way 
we take produce to Covent Garden Market, a distance 
of about 12 miles, which takes about two hours, and 
load back from London with manure. We consider after 
careful calculation the average work done is quite equal 
to that of five horses. We are of opinion that the 
steam wagon is more useful than the tractor for our 
work for several reasons, (i) Greater carrying capacity 
by having the two vehicles to load ; (2) using our ex- 
isting wagons for trailers instead of specially built ones ; 
(3) the steam wagon is much more easily manipulated in 
traffic and by carrying a greater total load there is a 
saving in drivers." 

Messrs Baker Bros., of Feltham, have a Coulthard lorry 
which is used with a trailer and " displaces five horses." 

Mr George Leonard, New Road, Shepperton, em- 
ploys a Foden steam wagon which "does the work of 

6 or 7 horses, going to Covent Garden every night when 
necessary, the journey there and back being about 38 
miles. It will carry about 200 bushels on the motor, 
and 200 on a trailer, a total load of 400 bushels." Mr 
Albert Vinson, Parsonage Farm, Belvedere, Kent, also 
uses a Foden motor with a trailer, which does the work 
of 6 to 8 horses, and takes 9-ton loads up considerable 
hills. In the Liverpool district a Lacre van has been used 
very successfully for strawberries carrying 300 to 500 
baskets of 3 lbs. each, a distance of 30 miles in about 2 
hours (part of the journey being on a Ferry Boat). 
" The cost of bringing the strawberries in by motor was 
a little in excess of the charges incurred when they were 
dispatched by railway, but the early arrival and the 
advertisement were of great benefit." 

An excellent example of the work which can be per- 



IVEI MOTOR HAULING THREE REAPING MACHINES, CUTTING A TOTAL WIDTH 
OF l8 FT. EIGHT ACRES WERE CUT IN TWO HOURS. SIX HORSES REPLACED 
IVY ONE MOTOR 

|' The Commercial Motor" '| 



THE CONVEYANCE OF PRODUCE 147 



formed by such power is afforded by the following 
statement by Messrs Lobjoit of what their three tractors 
have to do. ' ' Two markets are served ; Covent Garden 
every day, and Brentford on Mondays, Wednesdays, and 
Fridays. All three tractors go to Covent Garden on 
Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays. One always 
makes an extra journey on Saturdays to bring home the 
wagon left there in the early morning and the empties. 
They frequently make a journey on Saturdays with goods 
ordered for the West End. Each Monday one tractor 
washes out, and the third on alternate Wednesdays. 
Two manure contracts are kept clean averaging about 
30 tons a week. The tractors draw all their own coal 
from the station, the corn for 35 horses employed on 
the land, and the coke for the greenhouse furnaces (about 
120 tons a year)." 

Other examples could be given, for similar trials have 
been made in many places, but those cited will suffice for 
our purpose, which is chiefly to show that, notwithstanding 
the expense, the disappointments with some of the earlier 
machines, and the constant care demanded, practical 
results of a sufficiently satisfactory character can be 
obtained by those in the position to make the most of 
this form of power. As improvements are developed, 
and machines capable of being equally utilised on the 
land and for traction are secured at more moderate prices 
a distinct advance may be expected in the solution of the 
main problem for large producers, i.e. increasing the 
speed and diminishing the cost of distribution. 

Conveyance by Rail 

The greatest distributing agencies are necessarily the 
railways, and until some fundamental alteration is made 
in our systems, land cultivators will be as dependent 
upon them as other producers who cannot reach all 



148 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



their markets by road. That defects are numerous and 
charges heavy are well known to all who have to trans- 
act much business with the British railway companies, 
but how far remedies can be applied and rates reduced 
is an important and complicated question which has not 
yet been fully answered. Many of the Companies con- 
tend that they have brought their charges to the lowest 
level ; that a good deal of the fruit and vegetable traffic 
on their lines as at present conducted, barely pays ex- 
penses ; and that further improvement can only be 
brought about by the growers consigning their goods in 
greater weights. The feeling of dissatisfaction is, how- 
ever, very general, and this is abundantly proved by the 
evidence taken before the Departmental Committee of 
the Board of Agriculture in 1 904, which, though con- 
cerned with fruit traffic, practically embodies the experi- 
ence of market-gardeners generally, many of whom 
are largely dependent upon fruit. 

The complaints are classified as follows : 

1. That the rates for carriage are too high for the 
services rendered. 

2. That preferential rates are given in the case of 
foreign fruits coming into this country. 

3. That preferential rates are given to one place 
over another in Great Britain ; that the incidence of the 
charges is variable ; and that the existing classification 
presses hardly on growers. 

4. That deliveries are frequently unpunctual so that 
fruit misses the market. 

5. That there is a great deal of bad handling of fruit. 

6. That pilfering frequently occurs. 

7. That the service given in many places is inade- 
quate j and that the vehicles provided, especially on 
goods trains, are often most unsuitable. 

8. That considerable delays and losses occur in con- 
nection with the conveyance of empties. 



THE CONVEYANCE OF PRODUCE 149 



9. That great difficulty is experienced by growers in 
getting the Companies to pay claims for damage or loss, 
especially in the case of fruit sent at owner's risk in the 
last two years, in consequence of a certain combination 
among the Companies. 

10. That other evil results follow from railway 
combination. 

Much evidence was taken by the Committee on these 
points and naturally there was some conflict of opinion 
due to various circumstances the special influence of 
which we have found in our own experience. In the 
first place, large dealers, whether growers or agents, can 
command more attention and consideration from the 
Railway Companies than the smaller ones can. Secondly, 
in districts where Market-gardening and fruit growing 
constitute the chief industry, and large supplies of 
produce are being forwarded by rail throughout the 
year better facilities are afforded than where but few 
are engaged in cultivation. Thirdly, a marked difference 
is observable wherever two or more Companies are 
serving the same district. Even though the actual rates 
may be identical by arrangement, the competition for 
the trade tends to insure more speedy delivery and 
greater carefulness on the part of the officials, to the 
advantage of the sender. In the fourth place, some of 
the most advanced growers give more attention to their 
methods of packing and the security of the packages 
than others do. 

The whole matter requires to be examined in a 
reasonable way ; the Companies have to consider the 
interests of their shareholders, and it cannot be expected 
that they will conduct their business at a loss out of 
consideration for those engaged in any one industry, 
however important it may be. On the other hand, the 
Companies are engaged in the service of the public, and 
there is a common right to demand fair treatment, a 



150 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



demand that could be enforced by lawful methods of 
combination amongst producers, powerful as the Com- 
panies are. Just as the advance of electric lighting led 
to great improvements in gas lighting, we anticipate 
that the extension of motor, tractor, and tramway 
traffic will bring about important changes in railway 
accommodation for growers and all classes of producers. 

In the meantime it is to the grower's interest to take 
the fullest advantage of such facilities as are already 
available, though sometimes the complainants are them- 
selves at fault, and the railway officials receive a greater 
measure of blame than is their due. Inefficient prepara- 
tion and packing of goods, lateness of delivery at the 
stations, and a blind way of continuing consignments to 
markets that are already glutted, lead to many unfavour- 
able results that are entirely due to the grower's want 
of system in his business. 

Another matter does not receive the attention it merits, 
and that is the utilisation of passenger train service for 
all the choicer and more valuable produce, confining the 
business done by goods trains to the rougher vegetables, 
which can be forwarded in greater bulk. With the best 
service of goods trains there is always much shunting to 
be done en route, which leads to considerable risk of 
damage, and delays too. When a goods train can be 
made up at a centre for a town or district this is reduced 
to a minimum ; but if open trucks are employed with 
sheeting laid directly over the produce, it is far from 
being an ideal mode of conveying perishable goods. The 
greatly improved special vans constructed for garden 
produce, especially for fruits and flowers, has been an 
advance of a distinctly favourable character. Those in 
use on the Great Western and Midland lines are excel- 
lent in all respects, being well ventilated, spacious, and 
covered so that the contents are thoroughly protected 
from the weather. The ventilators are covered on the 



THE CONVEYANCE OF PRODUCE 151 



inside with finely-perforated zinc, so that insects and 
dust are excluded to a great extent. The whole or part 
of the van can also be fitted with stout wire shelves to 
carry boxes of flowers, and these can be put into their 
places or removed in a few minutes. We have examined 
many vans on different lines, but have never seen any to 
surpass these — in fact it is difficult to see how they could 
be improved, except by the addition of refrigerating ap- 
paratus for summer use. 

The Great Western Company has made a special 
feature of these vans for the development of the fruit 
traffic in Worcestershire and other counties served by 
their system, and an example of what a great railway 
organisation can accomplish was afforded early in 
October 1905. One of Elder, FyfFe & Co.'s steamers 
arrived at Avonmouth, Bristol, loaded with bunches of 
Bananas ; two special Great Western goods trains of fifty 
fruit vans each were immediately loaded with 14,000 
bunches. The trains arrived at Paddington at 6 a.m. 
the next morning, where 100 pair-horse vans with 300 
men awaited them, and they were all started with their 
loads by 8. 15 a.m. for distribution amongst the London 
markets, fifty one-horse vans clearing the remainder at a 
later period in the day. It was a notable performance, 
and proved how a Company can rise to the occasion when 
the magnitude of the trade is sufficient to induce them 
to put forth their best efforts. 

It must be admitted that the rates on some of the 
lines represent but a small proportion of the retail value 
of the produce. For example, the manager of one of 
the lines pointed out to us that in one season it was 
within his own knowledge that the same plums which 
only brought to the grower id. per pound were being 
sold in a large northern town at 6d. per pound, yet the 
railway charge in conveying this fruit 200 miles by 
goods train was only one-sixth of a penny per pound 



152 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



in half-ton lots. He very truthfully remarked that the 
difference in the two prices was certainly not due to 
the amount required by his Company for their share of 
the transaction. On some of the lines which cover a 
shorter distance, the average rate is only one-half of 
the above, namely, one-twelfth of id. per pound. By 
passenger train the rates are necessarily higher, but 
the advantages are proportionately greater ; and where 
there is sufficient trade to justify the needful provision 
of vans, 24 lb. packages of fruit can be conveyed at an 
average rate of Jd. per pound up to 200 miles, or one-third 
of id. per pound in 5 cwt. lots for the same distance. 
Obviously in such cases there is little room for com- 
plaint as to charges, and if these were made uniform on 
all lines and in all districts a considerable help would be 
rendered to thousands of growers. 

Consignments in larger weights, from I to 5 tons, can 
be conveyed at still lower rates, and in this direction 
co-operation amongst growers would produce sub- 
stantial pecuniary results. Well-organised combination 
might be turned to excellent purpose, but it is a means 
of which British agriculturists and horticulturists have 
not as yet fully availed themselves. 

Lord Onslow's Departmental Committee, in present- 
ing their Report, furnished a series of summarised 
recommendations for the improvement of the railway 
traffic as regards fruit, which are worth repetition here 
as a guide to those who wish to promote the business 
relations between the great carrying companies and the 
growers. They are as follows : — 

That it is highly desirable a more simple and 
uniform system of rates for fruit be introduced by 
Railway Companies. This can be done without a 
statutory re-classification with the assistance of the 
Board of Trade. 

That Railway Companies should make greater 



THE CONVEYANCE OF PRODUCE 153 



efforts for ensuring the prompt delivery of perishable 
fruit. 

That the Companies be urged to provide suitably 
ventilated goods vans for fruit traffic. That sheeted 
trucks without sheet supporters should never be 
used. 

That it is most desirable all fruit be consigned at 
Company's risk, and that the so-called owner's risk 
rates be abolished, the rates at Company's risk being 
reduced to a figure approximating to those now in 
force at owner's risk, providing the Companies with just 
a sufficient margin for the extra liability incurred. 
That 5 per cent would be a fair margin. 

That, in the event of owner's risk rates being re- 
tained, the liability of the Railway Companies should 
not be confined to cases where only " wilful miscon- 
duct," but to those where "culpable negligence" can be 
proved. 

The Committee also suggest that in view of the 
recent tendency to combine among the railways, it 
would be an advantage if the Government were to 
appoint an official or a Department to watch over the 
Companies' actions, and to report to Parliament. 

That in the case of all serious grievances against the 
Railway Companies, growers and merchants should at 
once send their complaint to the Railway Department 
of the Board of Trade, and ask them to exercise their 
powers under the Conciliation Clause of the Act of 
1888. 

That in years of glut, the Companies should be 
urged to temporarily lower their rates for fruit, just as 
excursion passenger fares are lowered on special 
occasions, and that if this cannot be done by agree- 
ment, it is desirable that the Railway and Canal Traffic 
Act of 1894 should be amended for the purpose. 



1 54 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



Conveyance by Canals 

Though this system might be utilised under some 
circumstances for the conveyance of heavy roots in 
large quantities, we have not succeeded in obtaining any 
statistics to illustrate how far it is employed. It is 
useless for anything of an immediately perishable nature, 
or where it is desirable to secure a quick market. For 
the transport of manures, canals are convenient in some 
districts, but so many have been acquired by Railway 
Companies to diminish the chances of competition that 
the rates are not so favourable as they otherwise would 
be in such a cheap system of conveyance. 

The navigable rivers are chiefly employed for exports 
and imports, and they are but little used for internal 
traffic in the United Kingdom as regards market garden 
produce. 

Conveyance by Parcel Post 

Fruit, flowers, and vegetables in small quantities can 
be sent by parcel post throughout Great Britain and 
Ireland, but except for I lb. or under the rates are higher 
than those charged on the railway lines which make a 
special provision for parcels traffic. The restriction as 
to total weight, i.e. II lb., is also an inconvenience, nor 
have we found the system favourable as regards the 
safety of the contents of the packages, in fact with fruits 
the results have been less satisfactory, on the whole, than 
with similar small packages sent by train. 

The utmost care should be taken in packing any fruits 
to be sent by parcels post, for over-ripe or damaged fruit 
might cause a risk of injury to other parcels, in which 
case the postal authorities can, if they choose, detain the 
whole package. For flowers the method has been em- 
ployed more largely, but the officials advise the use of 
tin or wooden boxes in preference to card-board, for fear 



THE CONVEYANCE OF PRODUCE 155 



of injury, though we have had the first-named quite as 
badly smashed as the last. In fact the smaller size of 
card-board boxes are now made strong and durable. In 
all cases tie-on labels or tags must be used, and the 
address of the consigner should also be written on the 
parcel. 

Where it is a long distance to the sender's nearest 
railway station, or in the numerous cases of provincial 
stations where there is no delivery of parcels, the postal 
system offers advantages. But delays are frequent in 
country districts, especially where there is only one 
delivery of letters daily, and the postmen have long 
distances to travel. 



SUBJECTS WORTH ATTENTION 



Co-operation 

Many of the difficulties which affect small producers in 
connection with railway charges for the carriage of 
goods, the expenses attending sales, and the purchase of 
materials, might be greatly reduced by well organised 
systems of co-operation. In the general trade of the 
country as regards provisions, clothing, etc., methods of 
co-operation have proved highly successful, especially in 
the North of England. The number of members con- 
stituting these industrial societies now exceeds two 
millions, while the funds amount to over forty-five 
million pounds, and considerable profits have been 
realised for distribution amongst the members. 

Amongst British farmers, fruit growers, and market 
gardeners the progress made in the direction of such 
combinations has been deplorably slow, though several 
Continental nations (like Denmark, for instance) have 
taken the fullest advantage of the benefits co-operation 
confers. The Agricultural Organisation Society, Ltd., 
Dacre House, DacreStreet, Victoria Street, London,S.W., 
has been registered under the Industrial and Provident 
Societies Acts as a non-trading society instituted for 
the purpose of advocating the principles of co-operation 
amongst all classes of land cultivators. Under its 
auspices many local societies have been formed for 
various purposes, and up to the end of 1 905, 125 such 
bodies were registered and affiliated. Instructive leaflets 
are issued gratuitously dealing with the methods 
156 



SUBJECTS WORTH ATTENTION 157 



available, full information respecting the formation of 
societies is readily furnished, and under some circum- 
stances representatives are sent to explain the system of 
organising, and the directions in which co-operation can 
be of special service to growers. In districts where 
small cultivators are numerous, substantial help could 
be rendered in reducing expenses and aiding those 
with small capital. 

All engaged in commercial horticulture should also 
make earnest efforts to assist themselves by extending 
their knowledge upon all matters relating to their 
business. In this connection it must be noted that the 
Board of Agriculture issue many important practical 
leaflets which can be obtained free by post from the offices, 
Whitehall Place, London, where also there is a large 
library which can be consulted on special subjects. The 
publication of Parliamentary Reports, or Acts dealing 
with the growers' interests, should also be watched, and 
most of them can be obtained at low prices from Messrs 
Spottiswoode & Co., East Harding Street, Fleet Street, 
E.C., or from Messrs Wyman, Fetter Lane, E.C. In 
addition, the numerous excellent trade periodicals should 
be closely studied, for much more journalistic attention is 
now paid to commercial horticulture than formerly. 

Assessment. Taxes. Rates. 

Several grievances under these heads were carefully 
investigated by the Board of Agriculture Fruit Com- 
mittee, and some valuable suggestions have been made 
that affect the interests of market gardeners generally, 
as well as fruit growers in particular. In reference to 
assessing market gardens and nurseries under Schedule 
B of the income-tax, there is a special rule by which 
the tenant pays on the estimated profits, instead of on 
one-third the annual value, as other agricultural tenants 



158 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 

do. It does not apply to fruit plantations generally, but 
to those considered to be market gardens and nurseries 
as well, though some confusion exists in the matter, as 
there is no accepted definition of a market garden and 
nursery. Hop gardens formerly came under the rule, 
but it has been abolished in their case, and the Com- 
mittee recommend a similar course with regard to 
market gardens and fruit land, with the exception of 
nurseries. 

In the assessment of fruit land for local rates, the 
chief complaint is that valuation is raised too soon after 
the planting, before the tenant or owner has had any 
chance to reap the slightest advantage from his outlay. 
It is strongly recommended by the Committee that such 
re-assessment should not be made until five years after 
planting small fruits, seven years for mixed plantations, 
and twelve years for orchards. 

In the taxation of glass-houses the chief grievance is 
in reference to the income-tax as regards the allowance 
for depreciation, which only amounts to one-sixth, as in 
the case of dwelling-houses, though they are entirely 
different, the cost being considerably greater for the 
due maintenance of glass-houses. The committee 
named recommend that the allowance be increased to 
one-third, i.e. one-sixth for repairs, and one-sixth for 
depreciation. Another unjust arrangement is that for 
local rating purposes " glass-houses and the land upon 
which they stand, are excluded from the benefits of the 
Agricultural Rates Act of 1896." The Committee 
therefore recommend that this act be amended so " that 
glass-houses used for commercial purposes should be 
held to be land and not buildings for the purposes of 
the Act." 

Excellent as the preceding recommendations un- 
doubtedly are, they will be of little avail until they are 
incorporated in the law of the land. To this end 



SUBJECTS WORTH ATTENTION 159 



parliamentary influence must be acquired by market 
gardeners and other cultivators, a matter of consider- 
able difficulty. Lord Onslow (late President of the 
Board of Agriculture), in the course of a letter to Mr 
Pike Pease, M.P., had the following trenchant remarks : 
" The amount of time devoted by the House of 
Commons to Agriculture is out of all proportion to the 
magnitude of the interests involved. ... If the 
Agricultural Rates Act were eliminated it wouJd be 
found that to legislation promoted by the Board of 
Agriculture the House could find time to devote only 
six hours in the last four years (1902-1905). . . . All 
classes interested in the cultivation of the soil should 
make clear to their representatives the conditions upon 
which they will continue to support them, and per- 
tinaciously to press their needs in Parliament." 



Compensation and Insurance 

The liability of employers to claims for compensation 
in the event of accidents befalling their workpeople is 
so extended that it is only a matter of common prudence 
to provide against such risks by insurance. Many 
Companies undertake to secure the employer for 
moderate premiums, but it is advisable to endeavour 
to understand the extent of the liability, and how far 
the various Companies really go in providing the grower 
with security to cover the whole of this. The subject 
has been concisely treated by Mr W. Fitzherbert- 
Brockholes, President of the Lancashire Farmers' As- 
sociation, in a leaflet (No. 6) issued by the Agricultural 
Organisation Society, which should be read by all who 
wish to gain an idea of a complicated and difficult sub- 
ject. The following are the leading points. 

The Acts of Parliament affecting the question are (i) 
the Workmen's Compensation Act of 1897, which in- 



160 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



eluded most employers. (2) The Workmen's Compensa- 
tion Act of 1900, which extended the first Act to work- 
men employed in agriculture, horticulture, and forestry. 

(3) The Employers' Liability Act of 1880, applied only 
to manual labour, and to accidents due to defective 
plant, or to the fault of the employer or his agents. 

(4) A workman might claim in some cases under the 
common law, and independent of the Acts named. 

The compensation fixed by the 1897 Act is as 
follows : In case of death where dependants are left, 
three years' wages (with £l$0 as the minimum and 
£350 as the maximum sum), and where there are no 
dependants a sum not exceeding £10 ; in case of 
disablements, half-weekly wages (maximum £l per 
week) during the whole period of disablement after the 
first fourteen days. When preparing the estimates of 
wages paid for the purpose of insurance, include the 
value of board, lodging, or house-rent where this is 
provided or allowed in addition to money. Include 
females employed in farm or garden work, also casual 
labour. 

Fruit Preserving Factories 

Some large fruit growers have found it to their 
advantage to provide factories for reducing their pro- 
duce to jam, or preserving fruits whole in bottles 
upon the premises. Properly worked, this should 
secure the profits that go to other dealers, and enable 
the grower to utilise his fruits in seasons of gluts 
when the market rates are unduly low. Great and 
flourishing businesses have been created by combinations 
of the kind referred to, but it is also fair to state 
that there have been some deplorable failures. It is 
obvious that the two departments are very distinct, and 
require a different kind of experience and knowledge. 



SUBJECTS WORTH ATTENTION 161 



Because a man is highly successful as a fruit grower, it 
does not follow that he will be equally so as a jam 
maker. On the other hand, one who has established a 
business in fruit preserving may prove a dismal failure as 
a grower. A sufficiency of capital will go far to assist 
in averting failure in either direction, because qualified 
managers can be employed in the respective departments 
where the owner's knowledge is defective. But even 
that is not all, for if an up-to-date factory is duly fitted 
with appliances, the capital sunk will yield but a poor 
interest if they can be utilised for only a small part of 
the year. It therefore necessitates launching out into 
preserving generally as a business, including the pre- 
paration of pickles, jellies, etc., and the development of 
a wide connection with retailers. 

Farming and Market Gardening 

Some combination of farming with gardening is, under 
certain circumstances, both advisable and profitable. 
Thus, poultry-keeping may often be included in the 
scope of the work, and, in favourable localities, with 
careful selection of the best breeds and due attention, it 
can be made to pay. Ducks, also, where they can be 
reared early in the season, constitute a useful addition 
to the resources. In Buckinghamshire, and on the 
borders of Bedfordshire, where Plums and Damsons 
are extensively grown in grass, ducks form an important 
" crop," and often yield ample returns. Geese and 
turkeys may similarly be included, but the last named 
are delicate as young birds, difficult to rear up to a 
certain age, and they are large eaters. 

Under the best management as to selection and 
cleanliness, with economical feeding pigs can be kept 
with advantage where there is suitable accommodation for 
them. But in a general way they pay best if sold young 

L 



1 62 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



as " stores," a succession of breeding sows being kept to 
furnish stock. 

Where fruits are grown on an extensive scale it is an 
advantage to keep some hives of bees, as, apart from any 
direct profit they may yield, they render important 
assistance indirectly in promoting the fertilisation of 
flowers, which often determines the setting of the fruits 
and the consequent crop. 

Crop Returns, Values, and Profits 

The discussion of returns and profits has been avoided, 
because statements on these matters are apt to mislead 
the inexperienced, and raise expectations which are 
rarely realised. There is a wide range between a return 
of £lo per acre, which may barely pay expenses, and 
£loo per acre, which should leave margin enough to 
satisfy any one. The influences are many, varied, and 
complicated which lead to the higher results. The skill 
of the grower, the nature of the soil, the situation, the 
crops grown, the character of the season, and the 
methods of selling all have a bearing upon the total 
values. With special crops like some high quality fruits, 
in certain seasons, the maximum mentioned may even be 
exceeded, also by exceptional crops like mushrooms, 
while under glass the acreage returns are still more 
largely increased. Crops of early Cabbages or Peas, 
and particularly fine Celery or Potatoes, sometimes yield 
the grower abundant returns, while at others the losses 
may be heavy. Profits will vary in the same way, the 
systems of working as well as the weather being impor- 
tant as determining factors. Under the most favourable 
conditions no form of land cultivation yields such satis- 
factory results as well-conducted market gardening ; even 
with average advantages it affords a substantial advance 
upon ordinary agricultural methods. , 



SUBJECTS WORTH ATTENTION 163 



The following are examples of the amount of vege- 
table and fruit crops per acre obtained within our own 
experience or knowledge. The first two figures repre- 
sent the average range, the third shows extreme crops. 
Marketable produce only is included. 

Vegetables 

Asparagus, 200-400-600 bundles (loo). 

Beans, Broad, 100-300-400 bushels. 

Beans, Kidney, 150-250-300 bushels. 

Beans, Runner, 200-400-500 bushels. 

Beetroot, 10-15-20 tons. 

Borecole, I0-I2-14 tons. 

Broccoli, 6-9-15 tons. 

Brussels Sprouts, 150-250-300 sieves. 

Cabbages, 1000-2000-3000 dozen. 

Cauliflowers, 5-10-14 tons. 

Carrots, 8-1 2-20 tons. 

Coleworts, 150-250-300 dozen bunches. 

Cucumbers (out-doors), [000-2000 dozen. 

Celery, 800-1 1 00- 1 300 bundles (12). 

Horse-radish, 4-6-7 tons. 

Lettuce, 1 000- 1 2 00- 1 400 scores. 

Mushrooms (ridge beds), 3-5-8 tons. 

Onions, 5-12-20 tons. 

Onions, Spring Salad, 2000-3000-3500 dozen bunches. 

Parsley, 1 000- 1 200-1400 dozen bunches. 

Parsnips, 10-12-18 tons. 

Peas, 100-150-200 bushels. 

Potatoes, 5- 10-15 tons - 

Radishes, 1 000- 1600-2000 dozen bunches. 

Rhubarb, 10- 15-20 tons. 

Savoys, 800-1000-1200 dozen. 

Spinach, 2-4-5 tons. 

Tomatoes (out-doors), 4-6- 1 o tons. 



1 64 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



Turnips, 400-700-900 bushels. 

Vegetable Marrow, 1 000- 1 200-1500 dozen. 

Watercress, 5-I0-12 tons. 

Hardy Fruits 

Apples (dwarf), 2-4-6 tons. 
Cherries, 2-5-7 tons. 
Currants, Black, I-4-5 tons. 
Currants, Red, 2-3-4 tons * 
Gooseberries, 3-6-8 tons. 
Pears, Standard, 4-6-8 tons. 
Plums and Damsons, 1-5-10 tons. 
Raspberries, 2-4-5 tons. 
Strawberries, 2-4-6 tons. 
Filberts, 5 cwt.-l ton-3 tons. 

Under glass crops vary enormously. The following 
are examples of three important crops in amounts per 
acre covered with glass. 

Grapes, 6-15-20 tons. 
Tomatoes, 10-20-50 tons. 
Cucumbers, 3000-5000-6000 dozen. 

To conclude, the fact must be emphasised that 
commercial horticulture is a highly specialised industry, 
and practical experience in all departments is essential to 
any measure of success. The principles which underlie 
this and private gardening are identical, but the methods 
are so entirely different that the best training in either 
requires considerable modification to fit the practitioner for 
the other. Some experience in both is an advantage, as 
in private gardening the chief object is the highest 
cultural results, but in market gardening the striving for 
perfection is qualified and restricted by financial con- 
siderations in every direction. 



APPENDIX 

While this manual was passing through the press, some 
correspondence has taken place between the Board of 
Agriculture and the Local Government Board relative to 
the recommendation of the Fruit Committee concerning 
the assessment of fruit land. The reply of the latter 
Board is to the following effect : ' ' The Board are not 
sure that any amendment of the law is required to meet 
the point referred to. If in fact any injustice is created 
by the over-assessment of the occupiers of an orchard, 
the fault would generally result from the action of the 
overseers or the Assessment Committee, and every such 
action is, under the existing law, subject to correction 
by means of an objection to the valuation list, or an 
appeal against the poor rate. The Board may at the 
same time point out that orchards, in the matter of the 
general district rate, and the separate rate for special 
expenses, have at the present time, under the Public 
Health (Rating of Orchards) Act 1 89 1, the advantage of 
a partial exemption, and that orchards are also included 
in the definition ' agricultural land ' for the purposes of 
the Agricultural Rate Act 1896, as continued in force 
by the Act of 1905. The Royal Commission on Local 
Taxation recommended that no further extension of the 
principles of exemption from liability to rates should 
be permitted." The effect of the Rating of Orchards 
Act mentioned is that the occupier of an orchard shall 
be assessed to the general district rate in an urban dis- 
trict, or to a separate special rate in rural districts, in the 
proportion of one-fourth of the net annual or rateable 
value of the land. 

165 



1 66 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING 



In connection with the difficulties caused by the railway 
companies having formed a "Joint Claims Committee," 
the avowed object of which is to investigate claims for 
loss or damage of goods, but which appears mainly con- 
cerned in refusing all claims for the loss of articles sent 
at owner's risk rates, market growers and others are 
endeavouring to protect themselves from much injustice. 
An influential Committee has been formed, known as the 
"Joint Railway and Parliamentary Committee," of which 
the President is Mr George Munro, Covent Garden 
Market, London. 

A Committee presided over by Lord Jersey has also 
investigated the subject of preferential rates given by 
railway companies to foreign produce, and a report will 
be issued. 

The King has appointed a Royal Commission on 
Canals and Waterways in the United Kingdom, and 
much valuable information will be obtained and published 
upon this important subject. Considerably improved 
modes of traction are also being tried on the canals. 

The business hitherto transacted by the Advisory 
Business Department of the Agricultural Organisation 
Society has now been taken over by the Agricultural 
Co-operative Federation, which has been registered 
under the Industrial and Provident Societies Act. The 
first-named Society now includes 10,000 members in the 
125 affiliated Societies, with a total turn-over for the 
past year of £250,000. 



INDEX 



Accessibility of land, 9 

Acreage under market gardens and 

fruit, 31 
Agricultural motors, 26, 145 

organisation, 156, 166 

Air drainage, 15 
Alternate system of planting, 32 
Altitude and elevation, 13 
Appearance and quality, 54 
Apples, 27, 30, 56, 62, 68, 102, 

164 

Approach roads, 9 

Apricots, 67, 103 

Arrangement of crops, 11, 17, 23, 

28, 32, 35 
Asparagus, 27, 40, 98, 113, 163 

sprays, 1 19 

Aspect, value of, 1 3 
Aspen wood wool, 95 
Assessment of market gardens, 

i57> 165 
Asters, 31 

Auction sales at markets, 133 

Baby baskets, 85, 106 
Bags and sacks, 92 
Bananas, imported, 151 
Barrels, fruit, 91 
Baskets, 60, 65, 80, 84 
Beans, broad, 84, 163 

French (kidney), 115, 163 

runner, 84, 116, 163 

Bedding plants, 120 
Beetroot, 117, 163 
Belts of trees, 16 

Board of Agriculture, 8, 76, 82, 

148, 152, 157 
Borecole (kale), 85, 163 
Boundary hedges, 15 



Boxes for fruit and flowers, 87 
Bracken for packing, 97 
Broccoli, 116, 163 
Brussels sprouts, 27, 84, 163 
Buckwheat husk, 97 
Bulbs, 31 

Bunching flowers, 117 
vegetables, 111 

Cabbages, 27, 49, 63, 84, 85, 1 
Californian pears, 67 
Canals, conveyance by, 154 
Canvas, Hessian, 92 
Cardboard boxes, 86, 90 
Carnations, 71 
Carriage of produce, 139 
Carrots, 63, 64, 91, 98, 111 
Carts for produce, 136 
Cauliflowers, 27, 84, 85, 163 
Celery, 27, 63, 113, 163 
Channel Islands, 6, 107 
Cherries, 30, 67, 70, 107, 164 
Cherry-plum hedge, 18 
Chip baskets and punnets, 86 
Chrysanthemums, 27, 31, 40, 
117 

Claigmar Vineyard, 41 
Cleanliness, 43, 62 
Climatic characters, 10 
Coleworts, 98, 115, 163 
Collecting crops, 59 
Colour in fruits, 56, 69 
Commercial gardening, 46 
Comparison of varieties, 49 
Compensation for crops, 7 

injuries, 159 

Competition in production, 1 
Concentration in cities, 1 
Consignment to market, 126 
167 



i68 



INDEX 



Consumers, direct sale to, 134 
Continental wood wool, 95 
Conveyance of produce, 139 
Co-operation, 156 
Copper sulphate, 37 
Cork dust, 97 
Corrugated iron sheds, 22 
Costermongers, 132 
Cottages for workmen, 19 

Lord Carrington's, 20 

rent of, 20 

Cotton wool, 95 
County Council trials, 51 
Crates for fruit and vegetables, 83, 
85 

Crops, arrangement, 11,17,23,28, 

3*> 35 

gathering, 59 

management, 26 

per acre, 162 

Crotons, 122 

Cucumbers, 27, 49, 70, 76, 108, 

110, 117, 163 
Cultivation, persistent, 144 

under glass, 37 

Cultivating by horse labour, 25 
Cultural essentials, 43 
Currants, 27, 30, 76, 105, 164 
Cut flowers, packing, 117 

Daffodils, 27, 31, 71, 84 
Dahlias, 31, 71 
Damsons in hedges, 18 
Diseases of crops, 36, 44 
Distribution of produce, 125 
Districts, market garden, 10 
Ditches as boundaries, 16 
Dracsenas, 122 
Drainage, 14 
Ducks, 161 

Earliness, value of, 51 
East and western counties, 12 
Economy in production, 34 
Employer's liability, 159 
Evesham. 6, 8, 84, 113, 141 
Essentials, cultural, 43 



Farming and market-gardening, 
161 

Farms, manual labour on, 20 
Fences, care of, 15 
Ferns, 122 
Fertilisers, use of, 36 
Fertility, maintaining, 44 
Figs, 69, 76, no 
Filberts, 164 
Fillis for tying, 100 
Finchley Vineyard, 41 
Flat baskets, 84 
Flower crops, 31 

Flowers, bunching and packing, 
117 

gathering, 70 

keeping and gumming, 72 

Foden motors and waggons, 146 
Foliage, bunching, 119 

plants, packing, 122 

Forcing fruits and flowers, 39 
Foreign supplies, 1 
Form of glass-houses, 39 
Foul land, expense of, 14 
Freehold land, purchase of, 9] 
Freshness, importance of, 60 
Fruit, acreage under, 31 

baskets for, 60, 65, 80, 84 

boxes for, 87 

by Parcel Post, 154 

Committee Report, 31, 152, 

157 

gathering, 65 

grading, 78 

packing, 101 

Fruiterers' displays, 137 
Fruits, hardy, 28 
Fruit-preserving factories, 160 
Fungicides, 36, 44 

Gathering crops, 59 
Geese, 161 

Glass-houses, cultivation in, 37, 44 

forms and sizes, 39 

water-supplies for, 41 

Gooseberries, 27, 30, 67, 76, 164 
Grading for profit, 74 
machines, 77 



INDEX 



169 



Grapes, 27, 69, 76, 107, 164 
Growers as salesmen, 128 
Guernsey, land in, 6 
Gumming flowers, 72 

Handle baskets, 85 
Hardy fruits, 28 

plants, 31 

Heavy soils, working, 25 
Hedges, boundary and protection, 

Hessian canvas, 92 
Holdings, small, 5 
Horse labour, 25 

Horse, steam, and motor plough- 
ing, 145 
Horse-radish, 91, 163 
Horticultural Society (Royal), 51 
Hydraulic rams, 42 

Income from land, 4 
Insects, destroying, 36, 44 
Insurance, 159 
Intercropping, 32 
Irises, 31 

Iron buildings, corrugated, 22 
Ivel agricultural motor, 144 

Kale (Borecole), 85, 163 
Kay, Mr Peter, Finchley, 41 
Knapsack sprayers, 36 

Labour difficulties, 19 
horse, 25 

permanent and temporary, 20 

Labourers, cottages for, 19, 20 

Lacre, van, 142 

Land, acreage cultivated, 31 

altitude and elevation, 13 

compensation for, 7 

freehold, value of, 9 

income from, 4 

selection of, 4 

situation of, 9 

tenure, 7 

Late crops, 52 
Leeks, 113 
Lettuces, 163 
Lilies, 31 



Lobjoits' (Messers) tractors, 143 
Lorry, useful forms of, 141 

Machines, grading, 77 

Management of crops, 27 

Manilla cord, 99 

Manures, artificial, 36 

Market garden districts, 10 

gardening, importance and 

prospects, 1 

important details, 46 

under glass, 37, 44 

gardens, labour in, 19 

prices, Board of Agriculture, 

76 

salesmen, 126 

Markets, 76, 133 

auctions at, 133 

Materials for packing, 93 
Melons, 69, 109 

Men and women in market gar- 
dens, 24 
Methods of packing, 101 
Moss for packing, 96 
Motor ploughing, cost of, 145 
Motors, agricultural, 26 

and tractors, 142 

Mushrooms, 27, 86, 163 
Myrobalan hedges, 18 
Myrsiphyllum, 119 

Narcissus packing, 117 
New and old varieties, 50 
Novelties, testing, 51 

Onions, 112, 117, 143 

Packages, 74 

Packing cut-flowers, 117 

for export, 123 

fruit, 101 

garden produce, 79, 101 

materials, 93 

plants, 120 

sheds, 42, 77 

tables and trays, 77 

vegetables, 111 

Paeonies, 31 
Palms, 122 



170 



INDEX 



Paper shavings, 96, 97 
Parcel post boxes, 86, 90 

fruit and flowers by, 154 

Paris green, 36 

Parsley, 115, 163 

Parsnips, 63, 163 

Peaches, 67, 69, 76, 102 

Pears, 27, 62, 67, 76, 102, 164 

Peas, 116, 163 

Pershore plums, 67, 84 

Petroleum, 36 

Piece-work, 22 

Pigs, 161 

Planet junior cultivators, 26 
Plans of arrangement, 10, 34 
Plants and flowers, 31 

packing, 120 

Ploughing, 25 

Plums, 30, 63, 67, 76, 84, 102, 
107, 164 

in hedges, 18 

Poplars for protection, 18 
Pot baskets, 83 

Potatoes, 27, 63, 84, 91, 93, 163 
Poultry, 161 

Power, steam, on land, 26 
Produce, distribution of, 125 

preparing for sale, 59 

Production, economy in, 34 
home, 1 

Productive power of land, 2 
Productiveness of varieties, 52 
Prospects of market gardening, 1 
Protection for crops, 40 

gardens, 16 

Punnets, 92 

Quality in produce, 54 
Quassia, 36 
Quick hedges, 16 

Radishes, 63, 98, 111, 163 
Raffia, 99 

Rail, conveyance by, 147 
Railway and Parliamentary Com- 
mittee, 166 

Companies' boxes, 87 

waggons and vans, 150 



Rain storage, 41 
Rainfall, 12 

Raspberries, 27, 66, 76, 105, 164 
Rates on market gardens, 157, 165 
Regular work, 21 
Rent of cottages, 20 

of land, 9 

Reserve work, 21 

Retailers, selling to, 130 

Rhubarb, 40, 114, 163 

River valleys, 15 

Road, conveyance by, 139 

Roads, approach, 9 

Rochford's tractors, 145 

Roots in bags, 92 

Roses, 17, 31, 117 

Royal Horticultural Society, 51 

Sacks and bags, 92 

Salesmen, market, 126 

Savoys, 116, 163 

Seakale, 40, 63, 114 

Seed saving and raising, 50 

Selection of kinds and varieties, 47 

of land, 4 

Selling price of land, 4 
Sheds, cart and waggon, 42 

packing, 42, 77 

Shops, supplying, 130 
Situations for market gardens, 9 
Small holdings, 5 
Smilax, 119 
Soils, the best, 13 

working heavy, 25 

Special districts, 10 
Specialisation, 27 
Spinach, 163 
Spraying apparatus, 36 
Steam power on land, 26 
Stephanotis, 73 
Storing fruits, 42 
Strawberries, 27, 65, 66, 76, 103, 
164 

Sunlight and sun heat, 45 

Tables and trays for packing, 77 
Tank space for rain, 41 
Taxation of glass-houses, 158 



INDEX 



171 



Temporary labour, 22 

protection, 40 

Tents for casual labourers, 22 
Tenure of land, 7 
Thinning fruits, 26 
Tomatoes, 49, 69, 76, 110, 163 
Tractors, work of, 142 
Tuberoses, 73 
Tubs for fruits, 63 
Turnips, 164 
Tying materials, 98 

Valleys of rivers, 15 
Value of land, 4 
Vans for fruits, 151 
Variety trials, 49 
Vegetable marrows, 164 
Vegetables, bunching, 1 1 1 



Vegetables, special crops, 28 
Ventilation in glass-houses, 45 
Violets, 31, 118 

Wadding, cotton, 95 
Waggon sheds, 42 
Waggons, railway, 151 
Wallflowers, 71, 84, 117 
Washing vegetables, 63 
Watercress, 115, 164 
Water-supply, 15, 41, 45 
Weeds, 14, 43 
Willows for protection, 18 
Windbreaks, 16 
Wood wool, 93 

Workmen's compensation, 159 
Whitethorn, 16 



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